Skip to content
Licensed Unlicensed Requires Authentication Published by De Gruyter April 7, 2006

The chemical erosion of human health: adverse environmental exposure and in-utero pollution – determinants of congenital disorders and chronic disease

  • Stephen J. Genuis

Abstract

Epidemiological research designed to explore causality of illness has produced increasing evidence to verify that exposure to toxic agents is contributing to the escalating burden of chronic affliction, including congenital disorders. While endeavoring to facilitate optimal health and well-being for patients, the medical profession is currently challenged by the consequences of environmental factors unique to the modern era. In the last half century, there have been profound shifts in health-related habits of individuals and population groups, and recent research suggests that changes in the home and workplace environment are responsible for many common health problems including various congenital anomalies. As a result of increasing concern about environmental influences on health, ‘Human Exposure Assessment,’ the investigation and study of specific patient exposures and related health concerns, is a rapidly expanding area of scientific research. Practitioners of clinical medicine, including providers of maternity care, should acquire the skills to elicit a proper environmental exposure history and the necessary tools to implement proactive patient education relating to precautionary avoidance.

:

Corresponding author: Dr. Stephen Genuis, MD FRCSC, DABOG, 2935-66 Street Edmonton, Alberta Canada T6K 4C1 Tel.: +1 (780) 450 3504 Fax: +1 (780) 490 1803

References

1 Adami HO, R Bergstrom, M Mohner, W Zatonski, H Storm, A Ekbom, et al.: Testicular cancer in nine northern European countries. Int J Cancer59 (1994) 33Search in Google Scholar

2 Ahlbom A: Neurodegenerative diseases, suicide and depressive symptoms in relation to EMF. Bioelectromagnetics Suppl 5 (2001) S13210.1002/1521-186X(2001)22:5+<::AID-BEM1029>3.0.CO;2-VSearch in Google Scholar

3 Allaire AD, RC Cefalo: Preconceptional health care model. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol78 (1998) 163Search in Google Scholar

4 Anway MD, AS Cupp, M Uzumcu, MK Skinner: Epigenetic Transgenerational Actions of Endocrine Disruptors and Male Fertility. Science308 (2005) 1466Search in Google Scholar

5 Ashby J, E Houthoff, SJ Kennedy, J Stevens, R Bars, FW Jekat, et al.: The challenge posed by endocrine-disrupting chemicals. Environ Health Perspect105 (1997) 164Search in Google Scholar

6 Auld RB, G Brock: Sexuality and erectile dysfinction: results of a national survey. J Sex Reprod Med2 (2002) 50Search in Google Scholar

7 Baccarelli A, P Mocarelli, DG Patterson Jr, M Bonzini, AC Pesatori, N Caporaso, et al.: Immunologic effects of dioxin: new results from Seveso and comparison with other studies. Environ Health Perspect110 (2002) 1169Search in Google Scholar

8 Barnes B, GS Bradley: Planning for a healthy baby. London: Vermillion, 1994Search in Google Scholar

9 Bauer A, C Alsen-Hinrichs: Environmental pollution–assessment of environmental medicine questionnaires and data in Schleswig-Holstein from 1995–1997. Fortschr Med Orig118 Suppl 2 (2000) 93Search in Google Scholar

10 Berkson DL: Hormone deception: how everyday foods and products are disrupting your hormones. Contemporary Publishing Group, Chicago 2000Search in Google Scholar

11 Bigsby R, RE Chapin, GP Daston, BJ Davis, J Gorski, LE Gray, et al.: Evaluating the effects of endocrine disruptors on endocrine function during development. Environ Health Perspect107 Suppl 4 (1999) 613Search in Google Scholar

12 Birnbaum LS: Endocrine effects of prenatal exposure to PCBs, dioxins, and other xenobiotics: implications for policy and future research. Environ Health Perspect102 (1994) 67610.1289/ehp.94102676Search in Google Scholar

13 Birnbaum LS: The impact of early environmental chemical exposure on carcinogenesis. Presentation at ‘Cancer and the Environment: The Legacy of the Industrial Age’ Conference. Tucson, Arizona. 40th Annual Meeting – American Academy of Environmental Medicine, October 27–30, 2005Search in Google Scholar

14 Birnbaum LS, AM Cummings: Dioxins and endometriosis: a plausible hypothesis. Environ Health Perspect110 (2002) 15Search in Google Scholar

15 Bjerregaard P, JC Hansen: Organochlorines and heavy metals in pregnant women from the Disko Bay area in Greenland. Sci Total Environ245 (2000) 195Search in Google Scholar

16 Blaise C, F Gagne, M Salazar, S Salazar, S Trottier, PD Hansen: Experimentally-induced feminisation of freshwater mussels after long-term exposure to a municap effluent. Fresenius Environ Bull12 (2003) 865Search in Google Scholar

17 Blanck HM, M Marcus, PE Tolbert, C Rubin, AK Henderson, VS Hertzberg, et al.: Age at menarche and tanner stage in girls exposed in utero and postnatally to polybrominated biphenyl. Epidemiology11 (2000) 641Search in Google Scholar

18 Boyle CA, P Decoufle, M Yeargin-Allsopp: Prevalence and health impact of developmental disabilities in US children. Pediatrics93 (1994) 399Search in Google Scholar

19 Branum AM, KC Schoendorf: Changing patterns of low birthweight and preterm birth in the United States, 1981–98. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol16 (2002) 8Search in Google Scholar

20 Brucker-Davis F: Effects of environmental synthetic chemicals on thyroid function. Thyroid8 (1998) 82710.1089/thy.1998.8.827Search in Google Scholar

21 Buck GM, JE Vena, EF Schisterman, J Dmochowski, P Mendola, LE Sever, et al.: Parental consumption of contaminated sport fish from Lake Ontario and predicted fecundability. Epidemiology11 (2000) 388Search in Google Scholar

22 Buechner P, S Neufeld, B Mausberg: Metallic lunch: an analysis of heavy metals in the Canadian diet. Environmental Defence Canada, Toronto 2004Search in Google Scholar

23 Bursch W, M Fuerhacker, M Gemeiner, B Grillitsch, A Jungbauer, N Kreuzinger, et al.: Endocrine disrupters in the aquatic environment: the Austrian approach–ARCEM. Water Sci Technol50 (2004) 293Search in Google Scholar

24 Bush B, AH Bennett, JT Snow: Polychlorobiphenyl congeners, p,p'-DDE, and sperm function in humans. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol15 (1986) 333Search in Google Scholar

25 Canadian Food Inspection Agency. Report: On pesticides, agricultural chemicals, veterinary drugs, environmental pollutants and other impurities in agri-food commodities of animal origin. Fiscal year 1998/1999; Vol 1: Ottawa, 1999Search in Google Scholar

26 Canadian Food Inspection Agency. Report: On pesticides, agricultural chemicals, environmental pollutants and other impurities in agri-food commodities of plant origin. Fiscal year 2000/2001; Vol 2: Ottawa, 2001Search in Google Scholar

27 Carpenter DO, KF Arcaro, B Bush, WD Niemi, S Pang, DD Vakharia: Human health and chemical mixtures: an overview. Environ Health Perspect106 Suppl 6 (1998) 1263Search in Google Scholar

28 Castleman BI, GE Ziem: Corporate influence on threshold limit values. Am J Ind Med13 (1988) 531Search in Google Scholar

29 Castleman BI, GE Ziem: American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists: low threshold of credibility. Am J Ind Med26 (1994) 133Search in Google Scholar

30 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Department of Health and Human Services. Third National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals. NCEH Pub. No. 05-0570 Atlanta: Georgia. July 2005:1-475Search in Google Scholar

31 Chao WY, CC Hsu, YL Guo: Middle-ear disease in children exposed prenatally to polychlorinated biphenyls and polychlorinated dibenzofurans. Arch Environ Health52 (1997) 257Search in Google Scholar

32 Cohn D: Disability rate of children, teens up sharply-to 1 in 12. The Washington Post. 2002: July 6Search in Google Scholar

33 Colborn T, D Dumanoski, JP Myers: Our Stolen Future. New York: Dutton, 1996Search in Google Scholar

34 Colborn T, FS vom Saal, AM Soto: Developmental effects of endocrine-disrupting chemicals in wildlife and humans. Environ Health Perspect101 (1993) 378Search in Google Scholar

35 Collaer ML, M Hines: Human behavioral sex differences: a role for gonadal hormones during early development? Psychol Bull118 (1995) 55Search in Google Scholar

36 Colon I, D Caro, CJ Bourdony, O Rosario: Identification of phthalate esters in the serum of young Puerto Rican girls with premature breast development. Environ Health Perspect108 (2000) 895Search in Google Scholar

37 Cordain L, MR Eades, MD Eades: Hyperinsulinemic diseases of civilization: more than just Syndrome X. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol136 (2003) 9510.1016/S1095-6433(03)00011-4Search in Google Scholar

38 Coury D: Biological influences on brain and behavior. Pediatric Academic Societies' Annual Meeting: Adolescent Medicine. Baltimore, May 1/2001Search in Google Scholar

39 Daughton CG, TA Ternes: Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the environment: agents of subtle change? Environ Health Perspect107 Suppl 6 (1999) 907Search in Google Scholar

40 Davidson PW, GJ Myers, B Weiss: Mercury exposure and child development outcomes. Pediatrics113 (2004) 1023Search in Google Scholar

41 Dewailly E, P Ayotte, S Bruneau, G Lebel, P Levallois, JP Weber: Exposure of the Inuit population of Nunavik (Arctic Quebec) to lead and mercury. Arch Environ Health56 (2001) 350Search in Google Scholar

42 Donald I: Practical Obstetric Problems. London: Lloyd-Luke Ltd, 1979Search in Google Scholar

43 Ehrhardt AA, HFL Meyer-Bahlburg, LR Rosen, JF Feldman, NP Veridiano, I Zimmerman, et al.: Sexual orientation after prenatal exposure to exogenous estrogen. Arch Sex Behav14 (1985) 57Search in Google Scholar

44 Ekbom A, L Richiardi, O Akre, SM Montgomery, P Sparen: Age at immigration and duration of stay in relation to risk for testicular cancer among Finnish immigrants in Sweden. J Natl Cancer Inst95 (2003) 1238Search in Google Scholar

45 Elliott S: Orgasmic and ejaculatory problems in clinical practice. J Sex Reproduc Med2 (2002) 6710.4172/1488-5069.1000032Search in Google Scholar

46 Environmental Working Group. Body burden – the pollution in newborns: a benchmark investigation of industrial chemicals, pollutants and pesticides in umbilical cord blood. (Executive Summary) July 14, 2005. [Accessed Sept 16, 2005] http://ewg.org/reports/bodyburden2/execsumm.phpSearch in Google Scholar

47 Eskenazi B, M Warner, P Mocarelli, S Samuels, LL Needham, DG Patterson Jr, et al.: Serum dioxin concentrations and menstrual cycle characteristics. Am J Epidemiol156 (2002) 383Search in Google Scholar

48 Etzel RA, SJ Balk, eds: American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Environmental Health. Handbook of Pediatric Environmental Health. American Academy of Pediatrics, Elk Grove Village, III 1999Search in Google Scholar

49 Forawi HA, PB Tchounwou, RW McMurray: Xenoestrogen modulation of the immune system: effects of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). Rev Environ Health19 (2004) 1Search in Google Scholar

50 Frank AL: Approach to the patient with an occupational or environmental illness. Prim Care27 (2000) 87710.1016/S0095-4543(05)70182-2Search in Google Scholar

51 Frey KA: Preconception care by the nonobstetrical provider. Mayo Clin Proc77 (2002) 46910.4065/77.5.469Search in Google Scholar

52 Genuis SJ: Back to the future of health care. N Z Med J118 (2005) U1467Search in Google Scholar

53 Genuis SJ: Nutritional transition: a determinant of global health. J Epidemiol Community Health59 (2005) 61510.1136/jech.2004.028985Search in Google Scholar

54 Genuis SJ, SK Genuis: Exploring the continuum: Medical information to effective clinical practice. Paper II. Towards etiology-centered clinical practice. J Eval Clinical Prac12 (2006) 63Search in Google Scholar

55 Genuis SJ, SK Genuis: Human exposure assessment and relief from neuropsychiatric symptoms. J Am Board Fam Pract17 (2004) 136Search in Google Scholar

56 Gilbertson M: Male cerebral palsy hospitalization as a potential indicator of neurological effects of methylmercury exposure in Great Lakes communities. Environ Res95 (2004) 37510.1016/j.envres.2003.09.009Search in Google Scholar

57 Goldman LR, S Koduru: Chemicals in the environment and developmental toxicity to children: a public health and policy perspective. Environ Health Perspect108 Suppl 3 (2000) 443Search in Google Scholar

58 Green R, R Hauser, AM Calafat, J Weuve, T Schetter, S Ringer, et al.: Use of di(2-ehtylhexyl) phthalate containing medical products and urinary levels of mono (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate in neonatal intensive care unit infants. Environ Health Perpsect doi:10.1289/ehp.7932 2005; (accessed at http://dx.doi.org/): Online 8 June 200510.1289/ehp.7932Search in Google Scholar

59 Greenlee AR, TE Arbuckle, PH Chyou: Risk factors for female infertility in an agricultural region. Epidemiology14 (2003) 429Search in Google Scholar

60 Groth E, CM Benbrook, K Lutz: Do you know what you're eating? An analysis of US government data on pesticide residues in foods. Consumers Union of United States, Inc.: Public service projects department; technical division 1999Search in Google Scholar

61 Harte J, C Holdren, R Schneider, C Shirley: Toxics A to Z: A Guide to Everyday Pollution Hazards. University of California Press, Berkeley 1991Search in Google Scholar

62 Heberer T: Occurrence, fate, and removal of pharmaceutical residues in the aquatic environment: a review of recent research data. Toxicol Lett131 (2002) 5Search in Google Scholar

63 Heilier JF, Nackers F, Verougstraete V, Tonglet R, Lison D, Donnez J. Increased dioxin-like compounds in the serum of women with peritoneal endometriosis and deep endometriotic (adenomyotic) nodules. Fertil Steril84 (2005) 305Search in Google Scholar

64 Hoyer AP, P Grandjean, T Jorgensen, JW Brock, HB Hartvig, et al.: Organochlorine exposure and risk of breast cancer. Lancet352 (1998) 1816Search in Google Scholar

65 Jacobsen JL, SW Jacobson: Intellectual impairment in children exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls in utero. N Engl J Med335 (1996) 783Search in Google Scholar

66 Jacobson JL, SW Jacobson, H Humphrey: Effects of exposure to PCBs and related compounds on growth and activity in children. Neurotoxicology and Teratology12 (1990) 319Search in Google Scholar

67 Johnson CC, DR Ownby, EM Zoratti, SH Alford, LK Williams, CL Joseph: Antibiotics in Infancy–Risk Factor for Childhood Asthma. Presentation at the Annual European Respiratory Society Conference, Vienna, Sept 30/2003.Search in Google Scholar

68 Jones K, G Moon: Health, disease and society: an introduction to medical geography. Routledge, London 1987Search in Google Scholar

69 Kannan K, S Corsolini, J Falandysz, G Fillmann, KS Kumar, BG Loganathan, et al.: Perfluorooctanesulfonate and related fluorochemicals in human blood from several countries. Environ Sci Technol38 (2004) 4489Search in Google Scholar

70 Khattak S, GK Moghtader, K McMartin, M Barrera, D Kennedy, G Koren: Pregnancy outcome following gestational exposure to organic solvents: a prospective controlled study. J Am Med Assoc281 (1999) 1106Search in Google Scholar

71 Kheifets LI, AA Afifi, PA Buffler, ZW Zhang: Occupational electric and magnetic field exposure and brain cancer: a meta-analysis. J Occup Environ Med37 (1995) 1327Search in Google Scholar

72 Kheifets LI, AA Afifi, PA Buffler, ZW Zhang, CC Matkin: Occupational electric and magnetic field exposure and leukemia. A meta-analysis. J Occup Environ Med39 (1997) 1074Search in Google Scholar

73 Kilpatrick N, H Frumkin, J Trowbridge, C Escoffery, R Geller, L Rubin, et al.: The environmental history in pediatric practice: a study of pediatricians' attitudes, beliefs, and practices. Environ Health Perspect110 (2002) 823Search in Google Scholar

74 Knox EG: Childhood cancers and atmospheric carcinogens. J Epidemiol Community Health59 (2005) 10110.1136/jech.2004.021675Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

75 Kuppermann M, RL Summitt Jr, RE Varner, SG Mc Neely, D Goodnan-Gruen, LA Learman, et al.: Total or Supracervical Hysterectomy Research Group. Sexual functioning after total compared with supracervical hysterectomy: a randomized trial. Obstet Gynecol105 (2005) 1309Search in Google Scholar

76 Lary JM, LJ Paulozzi: Sex differences in the prevalence of human birth defects: a population-based study. Teratology64 (2001) 237Search in Google Scholar

77 Latini G, C De Felice, G Presta, A Del Vecchio, I Paris, F Ruggieri, et al.: In utero exposure to di-(2-ethylhexyl)-phthalate and duration of human pregnancy. Environ Health Perspect111 (2003) 1783Search in Google Scholar

78 Li D, R Neutra: Magnetic fields and miscarriage. Epidemiology13 (2002) 237Search in Google Scholar

79 Li DK, R Odouli, S Wi, T Janevic, I Golditch, TD Bracken, et al.: A population-based prospective cohort study of personal exposure to magnetic fields during pregnancy and the risk of miscarriage. Epidemiology13 (2002) 9Search in Google Scholar

80 Longnecker MP, MA Klebanoff, H Zhou, JW Brock: Association between maternal serum concentration of the DDT metabolite DDE and preterm and small-for-gestational-age babies at birth. Lancet358 (2001) 110Search in Google Scholar

81 Mannino DM, DM Homa, LJ Akinbami, JE Moorman, C Gwynn, SC Redd: Surveillance for asthma–United States, 1980–1999. MMWR Surveill Summ51 (2002) 1Search in Google Scholar

82 Manzer J: Ontario's hysterectomy rates too high. Med Post38 (2002) 5Search in Google Scholar

83 Marshall LM: Exposure history. In The Ontario College of Family Physicians [association website][cited 30 August 03]. Available from the internet: 2002. http://www.ocfp.on.ca/local/files/EHC/Exposure%20Hx%20Forms.pdfSearch in Google Scholar

84 Marshall L, E Weir, A Abelsohn, MD Sanborn: Identifying and managing adverse environmental health effects: 1. taking an exposure history. CMAJ166 (2002) 1049Search in Google Scholar

85 Matthiessen P, JP Sumpter: Effects of estrogenic substances in the aquatic environment. EXS86 (1998) 319Search in Google Scholar

86 Matthiessen P, Y Allen, S Bamber, J Craft, M Hurst, T Hutchinson, et al.: The impact of oestrogenic and androgenic contamination on marine organisms in the United Kingdom–summary of the EDMAR programme. Endocrine Disruption in the Marine Environment. Mar Environ Res54 (2002) 645Search in Google Scholar

87 McKeever TM, SA Lewis, C Smith, R Hubbard: The importance of prenatal exposures on the development of allergic disease: a birth cohort study using the West Midlands General Practice Database. Am J Respir Crit Care Med166 (2002) 827Search in Google Scholar

88 McLachlan JA: Environmental signaling: what embryos and evolution teach us about endocrine disrupting chemicals. Endocr Rev22 (2001) 31910.1210/edrv.22.3.0432Search in Google Scholar PubMed

89 Merritt EF: Human health and the environment: are physician educators lagging behind? JAMA281 (1999) 166110.1001/jama.281.17.1661Search in Google Scholar PubMed

90 Meyer-Bahlburg HFL, AA Ehrhardt, LR Rosen, RS Gruen, NP Veridiano, FH Vann, et al.: Prenatal estrogens and the development of homosexual orientation. Developmental Psychology31 (1995) 12Search in Google Scholar

91 Miller RL, R Garfinkel, M Horton, D Camann, FP Perera, RM Whyatt, et al.: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, environmental tobacco smoke, and respiratory symptoms in an inner-city birth cohort. Chest126 (2004) 1071Search in Google Scholar

92 Monif GRG: Puerperal sepsis. Infectious Disease Letters Obstetrics and Gynecology4 (1982) 67Search in Google Scholar

93 Mortensen JT, J Olsen, H Larsen, J Bendsen, C Obel, HT Sorensen: Psychomotor development in children exposed in utero to benzodiazepines, antidepressants, neuroleptics, and anti-epileptics. Eur J Epidemiol18 (2003) 769Search in Google Scholar

94 Murray CJL, AD Lopez (eds): The global burden of disease: a comprehensive assessment of mortality and disability from diseases, injuries, and risk factors in 1990 and projected to 2020. Harvard University Press, Boston, MA 1996, pp 4–990Search in Google Scholar

95 Needham LL, H Ozkaynak, RM Whyatt, DB Barr, RY Wang, L Naeher, et al.: Exposure Assessment in the National Children's Study: Introduction. Environ Health Perspect113 (2005) 1076Search in Google Scholar

96 Nettleton S: The sociology of health & illness. Polity Press, Cambridge 1995, pp 1–253Search in Google Scholar

97 Neutra RR, V DelPizzo, GM Lee: An evaluation of the possible risks from electric and magnetic fields (EMFs) from power lines, internal wiring, electrical occupations, and appliances. California EMF Program: Final Report, 2002Search in Google Scholar

98 Olsen SF: Mercury, PCB, and now eicosapentaenoic acid: still another reason why pregnant women should be concerned about eating seafood? Int J Epidemiol30 (2001) 1279Search in Google Scholar

99 Ontario College of Family Physicians. Pesticides literature review. April 23, 2004. [Accessed July 16, 2005] http://www.ocfp.on.ca/English/OCFP/Communications/Current-Issaues/Pesticides/default.asp?s=1)Search in Google Scholar

100 Osteen KG, E Sierra-Rivera: Does disruption of immune and endocrine systems by environmental toxins contribute to development of endometriosis? Semin Reprod Endocrinol15 (1997) 301Search in Google Scholar

101 Ott WR: Human exposure assessment: the birth of a new science. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol5 (1995) 449Search in Google Scholar

102 Palmer JR, EE Hatch, CL Rosenberg, P Hartge, RH Kaufman, L Titus-Ernstoff, et al.: Risk of breast cancer in women exposed to diethylstilbestrol in utero: preliminary results (United States). Cancer Causes Control13 (2002) 753Search in Google Scholar

103 Perera FP: Environment and cancer: who are susceptible?Science278 (1997) 106810.1126/science.278.5340.1068Search in Google Scholar PubMed

104 Pope AM, DP Rall (eds): Environmental Medicine: Integrating a missing element into medical education. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1995Search in Google Scholar

105 Quinn MM, DH Wegman, IA Greaves, SK Hammond, MJ Ellenbecker, RF Spark, et al.: Investigation of reports of sexual dysfunction among male chemical workers manufacturing stilbene derivatives. Am J Ind Med18 (1990) 55Search in Google Scholar

106 Raloff J: Drugged water: does it matter that pharmaceuticals are turning up in water supplies?Science News153 (1998) 18710.2307/4010314Search in Google Scholar

107 Rapp DJ: Our Toxic World: A Wake Up Call-Chemicals Damage Your Body, Brain, Behavior and Sex. Buffalo: Environmental Medical Research Foundation, 2004Search in Google Scholar

108 Rat Genome Sequencing Project Consortium. Genome sequence of the Brown Norway rat yields insights into mammalian evolution. Nature428 (2004) 49310.1038/nature02426Search in Google Scholar PubMed

109 Rea WJ: Chemical Sensitivity: (Volume 4): Tools of Diagnosis and Methods of Treatment. Boca Raton: Lewis Publishers, 1997Search in Google Scholar

110 Rea WJ, Y Pan, EJ Fenyves, I Sujisawa, N Suyama, GH Ross: Electromagnetic field sensitivity. J Bioelectricity10 (1991) 241Search in Google Scholar

111 Rier S, WG Foster: Environmental dioxins and endometriosis. Toxicol Sci70 (2002) 161Search in Google Scholar

112 Robbins J: The Food Revolution. Berkeley, CA: Conari Press, 2001Search in Google Scholar

113 Robison LM, DA Sclar, TL Skaer, RS Galin: National trends in the prevalence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and the prescribing of methylphenidate among school-age children: 1990–1995. Clin Pediatr (Phila)38 (1999) 209Search in Google Scholar

114 Rogan WJ, NB Ragan: Evidence of effects of environmental chemicals on the endocrine system in children. Pediatrics112 (2003) 247Search in Google Scholar

115 Rogers SA: The Scientific Basis for Selected Environmental Medicine Techniques. Sarasota: SK Publishing, 1994Search in Google Scholar

116 Rogers SA: Detoxify or Die. Prestige Publishing, Sarasota 2002Search in Google Scholar

117 Rothman KJ: Epidemiology: an introduction. Oxford University Press, New York 2002Search in Google Scholar

118 Rowland AS, DM Umbach, L Stallone, AJ Naftel, EM Bohlig, DP Sandler: Prevalence of medication treatment for attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder among elementary school children in Johnston County, North Carolina. Am J Public Health92 (2002) 231Search in Google Scholar

119 Sakamoto M, M Kubota, XJ Liu, K Murata, K Nakai, H Satoh: Maternal and fetal mercury and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids as a risk and benefit of fish consumption to fetus. Environ Sci Technol38 (2004) 3860Search in Google Scholar

120 Saunders EJ: Physical and psychological problems associated with exposure to diethylstilbestrol (DES). Hosp Community Psychiatry39 (1988) 7310.1176/ps.39.1.73Search in Google Scholar PubMed

121 Schecter A, M Pavuk, O Papke, JJ Ryan, L Birnbaum, R Rosen: Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in US mothers' milk. Environ Health Perspect111 (2003) 1723Search in Google Scholar

122 Schecter A, D Wallace, M Pavuk, A Piskac, O Papke: Dioxins in commercial United States baby food. J Toxicol Environ Health A65 (2002) 1937Search in Google Scholar

123 Seaman B: The greatest experiment ever performed on women. New York: Hyperion Books, 2003Search in Google Scholar

124 Sharpe RM, DS Irvine: How strong is the evidence of a link between environmental chemicals and adverse effects on human reproductive health? Br Med J328 (2004) 447Search in Google Scholar

125 Skakkebaek NE, E Rajpert-De Meyts, KM Main: Testicular dysgenesis syndrome: an increasingly common developmental disorder with environmental aspects. Hum Reprod16 (2001) 972Search in Google Scholar

126 Snyder SA, P Westerhoff, Y Yoon, DL Sedlak: Pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and endocrine disruptors in water: implications for the water industry. Environ Engineer Sci20 (2003) 449Search in Google Scholar

127 Solomon GM, T Schettler: Environment and health: 6. Endocrine disruption and potential human health implications. CMAJ163 (2000) 1471Search in Google Scholar

128 Sorensen HJ, EL Mortensen, JM Reinisch, SA Mednick: Do hypertension and diuretic treatment in pregnancy increase the risk of schizophrenia in offspring? Am J Psychiatry160 (2003) 464Search in Google Scholar

129 Spirer HF, L Spirer: Death and numbers: Semmelweis the statistician. PSR Quarterly1 (1991) 43Search in Google Scholar

130 Steinhardt GF: Endocrine disruption and hypospadias. Adv Exp Med Biol545 (2004) 20310.1007/978-1-4419-8995-6_13Search in Google Scholar PubMed

131 Swan SH, KM Main, F Liu, SL Stewart, RL Kruse, AM Calafat, et al.: Decrease in anogenital distance among male infants with prenatal phthalate exposure. Environmental Health Perspect113 (2005) 1056Search in Google Scholar

132 Tasker L, D Mergler, M Baldwin, S de Grosbois, A Smargiassi, J Lafond: Thyroid hormones in pregnancy in relation to environmental exposure to organochlorine compounds and mercury. Environ Health Perspect113 (2005) 1039Search in Google Scholar

133 Ternes T: Drugs and hormones as pollutants of the aquatic environment: determination and ecotoxicological impacts. Sci Total Environ225 (1999) 1Search in Google Scholar

134 Ternes TA, P Kreckel, J Mueller: Behaviour and occurrence of estrogens in municipal sewage treatment plants–II. Aerobic batch experiments with activated sludge. Sci Total Environ225 (1999) 91Search in Google Scholar

135 Ternes TA, M Stumpf, J Mueller, K Haberer, RD Wilken, M Servos: Behavior and occurrence of estrogens in municipal sewage treatment plants–I. Investigations in Germany, Canada and Brazil. Sci Total Environ225 (1999) 81Search in Google Scholar

136 Timms BG, KL Howdeshell, L Barton, S Bradley, CA Richter, FS Vom Saal: Estrogenic chemicals in plastic and oral contraceptives disrupt development of the fetal mouse prostate and urethra. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA102 (2005) 7014Search in Google Scholar

137 Trasande L, PJ Landrigan: The National Children's Study: a critical national investment. Environ Health Perspect112 (2004) A78910.1289/ehp.112-a789Search in Google Scholar

138 US Environmental Protection Agency. Chemicals identified in human biological media, a database. EPA-560/5-84-003, 1984Search in Google Scholar

139 US Environmental Protection Agency. Broad Scan Analysis of the FY82 National Human Adipose Tissue Survey Specimens. EPA 560/5-86-035. 1986Search in Google Scholar

140 Van den BeltK, R Verheyen, H Witters: Reproductive effects of ethynylestradiol and 4t-octylphenol on the zebrafish (Danio rerio). Arch Environ Contam Toxicol41 (2001) 458Search in Google Scholar

141 van WijngaardenE, DA Savitz, RC Kleckner, J Cai, D Loomis: Exposure to electromagnetic fields and suicide among electric utility workers: a nested case-control study. Occup Environ Med57 (2000) 258Search in Google Scholar

142 Vreugdenhil HJ, FM Slijper, PG Mulder, N Weisglas-Kuperus: Effects of perinatal exposure to PCBs and dioxins on play behavior in Dutch children at school age. Environ Health Perspect110 (2002) A59310.1289/ehp.021100593Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

143 Wagner EH, T Groves: Care for chronic diseases. Br Med J325 (2002) 913Search in Google Scholar

144 Ward N: Foresight 1990-1993 study of preconceptual care and pregnancy outcome (correspondence). J Nutr Environ Med5 (1995) 20510.3109/13590849509000218Search in Google Scholar

145 Warner M, B Eskenazi, P Mocarelli, PM Gerthoux, S Samuels, L Needham, et al.: Serum dioxin concentrations and breast cancer risk in the Seveso Women's Health Study. Environ Health Perspect110 (2002) 625Search in Google Scholar

146 Wartenberg D: A meta-analysis of studies of childhood cancer and residential exposure to magnetic fields. In Report for the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences: Research Triangle Park NC. 1998Search in Google Scholar

147 Weir E: Identifying and managing adverse environmental health effects: a new series. CMAJ166 (2002) 1041Search in Google Scholar

148 Weir HK, LD Marrett, N Kreiger, GA Darlington, L Sugar: Pre-natal and peri-natal exposures and risk of testicular germ-cell cancer. Int J Cancer87 (2000) 438Search in Google Scholar

149 Wiles R, K Davies, C Campbell: Overexposed: organophosphate insecticides in children's food. Environmental Working Group, Washington, DC 1998Search in Google Scholar

150 Wilson VS, C Lambright, J Ostby, LE Gray Jr: In vitro and in vivo effects of 17beta-trenbolone: a feedlot effluent contaminant. Toxicol Sci70 (2002) 202Search in Google Scholar

151 Wingspread statement on the Precautionary Principle. (1998) [http://www.gdrc.org/u-gov/precaution-3.html] Accessed Aug 25/2005Search in Google Scholar

152 World Health Organization. Geneva. United Nations Environment Programme. International Programme on Chemical Safety: Environmental Health Criteria 101: Methyl-mercury. 1990Search in Google Scholar

153 World Health Organization. Stewart BW, Kleihues P (eds). World Cancer Report. International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2003, 12–337Search in Google Scholar

154 World Health Organization. The World Health Report 2004: Changing History (Overview). Geneva 2004Search in Google Scholar

155 World Health Organization. Preventing chronic diseases: a vital investment. A WHO global report. Geneva, 2005, pp 1–202Search in Google Scholar

156 Yeargin-Allsopp M, C Rice, T Karapurkar, N Doernberg, C Boyle, C Murphy: Prevalence of autism in a US metropolitan area. J Am Med Assoc289 (2003) 49Search in Google Scholar

157 Yin GG, RS Kookana, YJ Ru: Occurrence and fate of hormone steroids in the environment. Environ Int28 (2002) 545Search in Google Scholar

158 Ziem GE, BI Castleman: Threshold limit values: historical perspectives and current practice. J Occup Med31 (1989) 910Search in Google Scholar

Published Online: 2006-04-07
Published in Print: 2006-05-01

©2006 by Walter de Gruyter Berlin New York

Downloaded on 23.4.2024 from https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/JPM.2006.033/html
Scroll to top button