Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

A Randomized Trial Examining the Effects of Aerobic Physical Activity on Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms in Young Children

  • Published:
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The goal of this study was to compare the effects of before school physical activity (PA) and sedentary classroom-based (SC) interventions on the symptoms, behavior, moodiness, and peer functioning of young children (M age = 6.83) at risk for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD-risk; n = 94) and typically developing children (TD; n = 108). Children were randomly assigned to either PA or SC and participated in the assigned intervention 31 min per day, each school day, over the course of 12 weeks. Parent and teacher ratings of ADHD symptoms (inattention, hyperactivity/impulsivity), oppositional behavior, moodiness, behavior toward peers, and reputation with peers, were used as dependent variables. Primary analyses indicate that the PA intervention was more effective than the SC intervention at reducing inattention and moodiness in the home context. Less conservative follow-up analyses within ADHD status and intervention groups suggest that a PA intervention may reduce impairment associated with ADHD-risk in both home and school domains; interpretive caution is warranted, however, given the liberal approach to these analyses. Unexpectedly, these findings also indicate the potential utility of a before school SC intervention as a tool for managing ADHD symptoms. Inclusion of a no treatment control group in future studies will enable further understanding of PA as an alternative management strategy for ADHD symptoms.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington: Author.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A., Fischer, M., Smallish, L., & Fletcher, K. (2002). The persistence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder into young adulthood as a function of reporting source and definition of disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 279–289. doi:10.1037//0021-843X.111.2.279.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bass, C. K. (1985). Running can modify classroom behavior. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 18, 160–161. doi:10.1177/002221948501800311.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benner-Davis, S., & Heaton, P. C. (2007). Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder: controversies of diagnosis and safety of pharmacological and nonpharmacological treatment. Current Drug Safety, 2, 33–42. doi:10.2174/157488607779315444.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berwid, O. G., & Halperin, J. M. (2012). Emerging support for a role of exercise in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder intervention planning. Current Psychiatry Reports, 14, 543–551. doi:10.1007/s11920-012-0297-4.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Biederman, J., Petty, C. R., Clarke, A., Lomedico, A., & Faraone, S. V. (2011). Predictors of persistent ADHD: An 11-year follow-up study. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 45, 150–155. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2010.06.009.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Caspersen, C. J., Powell, K. E., & Christenson, G. M. (1985). Physical activity, exercise, and physical fitness: definitions and distinctions for health-related research. Public Health Reports, 100, 126–131. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/20056429.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010). The association between school-based physical activity, including physical education, and academic performance. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chang, Y.-K., Liu, S., Yu, H.-H., & Lee, Y.-H. (2012). Effect of acute exercise on executive function in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 27, 225–237. doi:10.1093/arclin/acr094.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cicchetti, D. (1993). Developmental psychopathology: reactions, reflections, projections. Developmental Review, 13, 471–502. doi:10.1006/drev.1993.1021.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cox, E. R., Motheral, B. R., Henderson, R. R., & Mager, D. (2003). Geographic variation in the prevalence of stimulant medication use among children 5 to 14 years old: results from a commercially insured US sample. Pediatrics, 111, 237–243. doi:10.1542/peds.111.2.237.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, A., & Lee, K. (2011). Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old. Science, 333(6045), 959–964. doi:10.1126/science.1204529.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DuPaul, G. J. (1991). Parent and teacher ratings of ADHD symptoms: psychometric properties in a community-based sample. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 20, 245–253. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp2003_3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DuPaul, G. J., Power, T. J., McGoey, K. E., Ikeda, M. J., & Anastopoulos, A. D. (1998). Reliability and validity of parent and teacher ratings of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 16, 55–68. doi:10.1177/073428299801600104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DuPaul, G. J., Weyandt, L. L., & Janusis, G. M. (2011). ADHD in the classroom: effective intervention strategies. Theory Into Practice, 50, 35–42. doi:10.1080/00405841.2011.534935.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fabiano, G. A., Pelham, W. E., Waschbusch, D. A., Gnagy, E. M., Lahey, B. B., Chronis, A. M., et al. (2006). A practical measure of impairment: psychometric properties of the impairment rating scale in samples of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and two school-based samples. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 35, 369–385. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3503_3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Halperin, J. M., & Healey, D. M. (2011). The influences of environmental enrichment, cognitive enhancement, and physical exercise on brain development: can we alter the developmental trajectory of ADHD? Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 621–634. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.07.006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hechtman, L. T. (1991). Resilience and vulnerability in long term outcome of attention deficit hyperactive disorder. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry/La Revue Canadienne de Psychiatrie, 36, 415–421.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hillman, C. H., Erickson, K. I., & Kramer, A. F. (2008). Be smart, exercise your heart: exercise effects on brain and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9, 58–65. doi:10.1038/nrn2298.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hinshaw, S. P., March, J. S., Abikoff, H. B., Arnold, L. E., Cantwell, D. P., Conners, C. K., et al. (1997). Comprehensive assessment of childhood attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in the context of a multisite, multimodal clinical trial. Journal of Attention Disorders, 1, 217–234. doi:10.1177/108705479700100403.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hinshaw, S. P., Owens, E. B., Zalecki, C., Huggins, S. P., Montenegro-Nevado, A. J., Schrodek, E., et al. (2012). Prospective follow-up of girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder into early adulthood: continuing impairment includes elevated risk for suicide attempts and self-injury. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 80, 1041–1051. doi:10.1037/a0029451.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoza, B. (2007). Peer functioning in children with ADHD. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 32, 719–727. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsm024.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoza, B., Gerdes, A. C., Mrug, S., Hinshaw, S. P., Bukowski, W. M., Gold, J. A., et al. (2005). Peer-assessed outcomes in the multimodal treatment study of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 74–86. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3401_7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, P. S., Arnold, L. E., Swanson, J. M., Vitiello, B., Abikoff, H. B., Greenhill, L. L., et al. (2007). 3-year follow-up of the NIMH MTA study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 46, 989–1002. doi:10.1097/chi.0b013e3180686d48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, A. S., & Kaufman, N. L. (2004). Kaufman brief intelligence test (2nd ed.). Circle Pines: AGS Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leger, L. A., Mercier, D., Gadoury, C., & Lambert, J. (1988). The multistage 20 metre shuttle run test for aerobic fitness. Journal of Sports Sciences, 6, 93–101. doi:10.1080/02640418808729800.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li, S.-C., Brehmer, Y., Shing, Y. L., Werkle-Bergner, M., & Lindenberger, U. (2006). Neuromodulation of associative and organizational plasticity across the life span: empirical evidence and neurocomputational modeling. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 30, 775–790. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2006.06.004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Loeber, R., Green, S. M., & Lahey, B. B. (1990). Mental health professionals’ perception of the utility of children, mothers, and teachers as informants on childhood psychopathology. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 19, 136–143. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp1902_5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, S. J., & Welk, G. J. (2008). Definitions and measurement. In A. L. Smith & S. J. H. Biddle (Eds.), Youth physical activity and sedentary behavior: challenges and solutions (pp. 3–29). Champaign: Human Kinetics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, G., & Pear, J. (2011). Behavior modification: what it is and how to do it (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Medina, J. A., Netto, T. L. B., Muszkat, M., Medina, A. C., Botter, D., Orbetelli, R., et al. (2010). Exercise impact on sustained attention of ADHD children, methylphenidate effects. ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders, 2, 49–58. doi:10.1007/s12402-009-0018-y.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mrug, S., Hoza, B., Pelham, W. E., Gnagy, E. M., & Greiner, A. R. (2007). Behavior and peer status in children with ADHD: continuity and change. Journal of Attention Disorders, 10, 359–371. doi:10.1177/1087054706288117.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pelham, W. E. (2002). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: diagnosis, assessment, nature, etiology, and treatment. Unpublished Manuscript: University at Buffalo.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ploughman, M. (2008). Exercise is brain food: the effects of physical activity on cognitive function. Developmental Neurorehabilitation, 11, 236–240. doi:10.1080/17518420801997007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pontifex, M. B., Saliba, B. J., Raine, L. B., Picchietti, D. L., & Hillman, C. H. (2013). Exercise improves behavioral, neurocognitive, and scholastic performance in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. The Journal of Pediatrics, 162, 543–551. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2012.08.036.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaffer, D., Fisher, P., Lucas, C. P., Dulcan, M. K., & Schwab-Stone, M. E. (2000). NIMH diagnostic interview schedule for children version IV (NIMH DISC-IV): description, differences from previous versions, and reliability of some common diagnoses. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 28–38. doi:10.1097/00004583-200001000-00014.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shipman, W. M. (1984). Emotional and behavioral effects of long-distance running on children. In M. L. Sachs & G. W. Buffone (Eds.), Running as therapy: an integrated approach (pp. 125–137). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, A. L., Hoza, B., Linnea, K., McQuade, J. D., Tomb, M., Vaughn, A. J., et al. (2013). Pilot physical activity intervention reduces severity of ADHD symptoms in young children. Journal of Attention Disorders, 17, 70–82. doi:10.1177/1087054711417395.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stensel, D. J., Gorely, T., & Biddle, S. J. H. (2008). Youth health outcomes. In A. L. Smith & S. J. H. Biddle (Eds.), Youth physical activity and sedentary behavior: challenges and solutions (pp. 31–57). Champaign: Human Kinetics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swanson, J. M., Kraemer, H. C., Hinshaw, S. P., Arnold, L. E., Conners, C. K., Abikoff, H. B., et al. (2001). Clinical relevance of the primary findings of the MTA: success rates based on severity of ADHD and ODD symptoms at the end of treatment. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 168–179. doi:10.1097/00004583-200102000-00011.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomson, L. M., Pangrazi, R. P., Friedman, G., & Hutchison, N. (2003). Childhood depressive symptoms, physical activity and health related fitness. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 25, 419–439.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verburgh, L., Königs, M., Scherder, E. J. A., & Oosterlaan, J. (2013). Physical exercise and executive functions in preadolescent children, adolescents and young adults: a meta-analysis. British Journal of Sports Medicine. Advance online publication. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2012-091441.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verret, C., Guay, M.-C., Berthiaume, C., Gardiner, P., & Béliveau, L. (2012). A physical activity program improves behavior and cognitive functions in children with ADHD: an exploratory study. Journal of Attention Disorders, 16, 71–80. doi:10.1177/1087054710379735.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wigal, T., Greenhill, L. L., Chuang, S., McGough, J., Vitiello, B., Skrobala, A., et al. (2006). Safety and tolerability of methylphenidate in preschool children with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 1294–1303. doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000235082.63156.27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This research was supported primarily by grant number R01MH082893 from the National Institute of Mental Health to Betsy Hoza and John T. Green. This research was supported in part by the United States Health and Human Services (USHHS), Administration on Developmental Disabilities (ADD), grant award 90DD0645 to the Center on Disability and Community Inclusion, University of Vermont. The views expressed in this paper are solely those of the authors, and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Institute of Mental Health, the USHHS, or the ADD and no official endorsement should be inferred.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychological Science, University of Vermont, 2 Colchester Avenue, Burlington, VT, 05405, USA

    Betsy Hoza, Erin K. Shoulberg & Kate S. Linnea

  2. Department of Kinesiology, Michigan State University, 130 IM Sports Circle, 308 W. Circle Drive, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA

    Alan L. Smith & Jordan A. Blazo

  3. Department of Health and Kinesiology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA

    Travis E. Dorsch & Caitlin M. Alerding

  4. Department of Statistics, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA

    George P. McCabe

  5. Department of Family, Consumer, and Human Development & Department of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, Utah State University, Logan, UT, 84322, USA

    Travis E. Dorsch

Authors
  1. Betsy Hoza
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Alan L. Smith
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Erin K. Shoulberg
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Kate S. Linnea
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Travis E. Dorsch
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Jordan A. Blazo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Caitlin M. Alerding
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. George P. McCabe
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Betsy Hoza.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Hoza, B., Smith, A.L., Shoulberg, E.K. et al. A Randomized Trial Examining the Effects of Aerobic Physical Activity on Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms in Young Children. J Abnorm Child Psychol 43, 655–667 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-014-9929-y

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-014-9929-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation