You are here

  • Home
  • Archive
  • Volume 4, Issue 2
  • Effects of exercise and physical activity promotion: meta-analysis informing the 2018 EULAR recommendations for physical activity in people with rheumatoid arthritis, spondyloarthritis and hip/knee osteoarthritis

Article Text

Article menu

Download PDFPDF

Rheumatoid arthritis
Original article
Effects of exercise and physical activity promotion: meta-analysis informing the 2018 EULAR recommendations for physical activity in people with rheumatoid arthritis, spondyloarthritis and hip/knee osteoarthritis
  1. Anne-Kathrin Rausch Osthoff1,2,
  2. Carsten Bogh Juhl3,4,
  3. Keegan Knittle5,
  4. Hanne Dagfinrud6,
  5. Emalie Hurkmans7,
  6. Juergen Braun8,9,
  7. Jan Schoones10,
  8. Theodora P M Vliet Vlieland2 and
  9. Karin Niedermann1
  1. 1 School of Health Professions, Institute of Physiotherapy, Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Winterthur, Switzerland
  2. 2 Department of Orthopaedics, Rehabilitation and Physical Therapy, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
  3. 3 University of Copenhagen, Herlev and Gentofte Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
  4. 4 University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
  5. 5 Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
  6. 6 National Advisory Unit on Rehabilitation in Rheumatology, Diakonhjemmet Hospital, Oslo, Norway
  7. 7 Department Social Affaire and Health, Ecorys, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
  8. 8 Rheumazentrum Ruhrgebiet, Herne, Germany
  9. 9 Ruhr University, Bochum, Germany
  10. 10 Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
  1. Correspondence to Dr Karin Niedermann; karin.niedermann{at}zhaw.ch

Abstract

Objective To evaluate the effectiveness of exercise and physical activity (PA) promotion on cardiovascular fitness, muscle strength, flexibility, neuromotor performance (eg, balance) and daily PA in people with rheumatoid arthritis (RA), spondyloarthritis (SpA) and hip/knee osteoarthritis (HOA/KOA).

Methods systematic review (SR) and meta-analysis (MA) were performed searching the databases PubMed/Medline, CENTRAL, Embase, Web of Science, Emcare and PsycInfo until April 2017. We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) in adults (≥18 years) with RA, SpA and HOA/KOA, investigating the effects of exercise or PA promotion according to the public health PA recommendations by the American College of Sports Medicine. The time point of interest was the first assessment after the intervention period. If suitable, data were pooled in a MA using a random-effects model presented as standardised mean difference (SMD).

Results The SR included 63 RCTs, of which 49 (3909 people with RA/SpA/HOA/KOA) were included in the MA. Moderate effects were found of aerobic exercises and resistance training on cardiovascular fitness (SMD 0.56 (95% CI 0.38 to 0.75)) and muscle strength (SMD 0.54 (95% CI 0.35 to 0.72)), respectively, but no effect of combined strength/aerobic/flexibility exercises on flexibility (SMD 0.12 (95% CI -0.16 to 0.41)). PA promotion interventions produced a small increase in PA behaviour (SMD 0.21 (95% CI 0.03 to 0.38)).

Conclusion Exercises and PA promotion according to public health recommendations for PA improved cardiovascular fitness, muscle strength and PA behaviour, with moderate effect sizes in people with SpA, RA and HOA/KOA.

Trial registration number CRD42017082131.

  • rehabilitation
  • rheumatoid arthritis
  • spondyloarthritis
  • osteoarthritis
  • knee osteoarthritis

This is an open access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, build upon this work non-commercially, and license their derivative works on different terms, provided the original work is properly cited, appropriate credit is given, any changes made indicated, and the use is non-commercial. See: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/

https://doi.org/10.1136/rmdopen-2018-000713

Statistics from Altmetric.com

    Request Permissions

    If you wish to reuse any or all of this article please use the link below which will take you to the Copyright Clearance Center’s RightsLink service. You will be able to get a quick price and instant permission to reuse the content in many different ways.

    Key messages

    What is already known about this subject?

    • There are public health recommendations for physical activity in healthy adults of all ages. Exercise is a cornerstone for the management of rheumatoid arthritis (RA), spondyloarthritis (SpA) and hip/knee osteoarthritis (HOA/KOA), but exercise interventions may not meet these recommendations.

    What does this study add?

    • Exercise interventions according to the public health recommendations in appropriate dose (frequency, intensity, time, type, volume, progression) is effective on cardiorespiratory fitness and muscle strength in people with RA, SpA and HOA/KOA.

    • Counselling-based physical activity promotion interventions according to the public health recommendations effectively change physical activity behaviour in people with RA, SpA and HOA/KOA.

    • There is a knowledge gap concerning the effects of flexibility and neuromotor exercises in people with RA, SpA and HOA/KOA.

    How might this impact on clinical practice?

    • Exercise and physical activity promotion according to the public health recommendations is effective and should be an integral part of standard care throughout the course of the disease in people with RA, SpA and HOA/KOA.

    Physical activity (PA) is defined as 'any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that result in energy expenditure'1 2 above resting (basal) levels. PA encompasses exercise, sports and physical activities, done as part of daily living, occupation, leisure and active transportation.3 Exercise is a subcategory of ‘physical activity that is planned, structured, and repetitive and (that) has as a final or intermediate objective to improve or maintain one or more dimensions of physical fitness’.1 In contrast, therapeutic exercises are specific exercises meant to address particular functional health problems.

    WHO recommends that adults, including elderly or people with chronic conditions, perform at least 150 min of moderate-intensity or 75 min of vigorous-intensity PA a week (or a combination of it) and additional muscle strengthening activities involving major muscle groups on at least 2 days a week.4 The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) recommends additional regular performance of flexibility and neuromotor activities such as balance or agility on at least 2 days a week.3 Accordingly, exercising in the four dimensions cardiovascular fitness, muscle strength, flexibility and neuromotor performance is recommended. The absolute energy demands of PA can be estimated by MET (metabolic equivalent of task)5: PA like walking 5 km/h is described by 3.2 METs, which is classified as a moderate-intensity activity; PA like jogging 9 km/h is described by 8.8 METs. Following Garber and colleagues,3 the use of absolute measures may however be misleading because personal factors like weight, sex or fitness level are not considered. For this reason, a relative measure of intensity (ie, the energy costs relative to the individual maximal capacity) like %METmax, %HRmax or perceived exertion is more appropriate. Moderate exercise is defined as 64% to 76% of the maximum heart rate (%HRmax), and vigorous exercise is defined as 77% to 95% HRmax. Furthermore, there is evidence that shorter (eg, 30 min) vigorous intensity (≥6 METs) of cardiovascular exercise is associated with a greater reduction of cardiovascular risk6 and lower mortality rate in the general population7 than longer (eg, 60 min) moderate intensity (3–6METs) cardiovascular exercise.

    The dose–response relationship between daily PA and health benefits was proven; by exceeding the minimum recommended amount of PA, the results regarding improvement of fitness, reduction of risk factors of chronic conditions and prevention of unhealthy weight gain are enhanced.3

    The evidence for the benefits of regular PA in healthy people is overwhelming.8 9 The benefits of PA are obvious in people with rheumatoid arthritis (RA),10 spondyloarthritis (SpA)11 and hip/knee osteoarthritis (HOA/KOA),12 and exercise is the cornerstone of the European League Against Rheumatism (EULAR) recommendations for the non-pharmacological disease management of 1 RA14, axial SpA15 and HOA/KOA.⇓ No specific recommendations on PA were available yet; therefore, in 2016, the EULAR project ‘recommendations for PA in people with inflammatory arthritis and osteoarthritis’16 was started. The task force, developing the recommendations, agreed that RA and SpA as predominant inflammatory arthritis (iA) conditions, and HOA/KOA as most relevant for PA recommendations represented the field of iA and OA, respectively. The resulting ‘2018 recommendations for PA’ provide four overarching principles and 10 recommendations which suggest PA as an integral part of standard care throughout the course of disease in people with RA, SpA and HOA/KOA, given its effectiveness, safety and feasibility.

    The recommendations for PA in people with RA, SpA and HOA/KOA may constitute a bridge between arthritis-specific exercises and public health recommendations for PA. They are also important because clinical practice shows that patients and clinicians may still believe that PA and exercising according to public health recommendations3 4 is potentially harmful and accelerate disease progression. Furthermore, the best strategy for the promotion of daily PA is still a matter of debate and a challenge for health professionals. However, there is evidence for the effectiveness of behaviour change techniques (BCTs) in PA promotion.17 18

    The EULAR Standardized Operating Procedures (SOPs) for the development of recommendations19 demand a systematic review (SR) of the literature with qualitative and if possible quantitative analysis, that is, a meta-analysis (MA), to inform the development of recommendations where appropriate. The aim of this paper is to report in detail on the MA that was performed to answer the question on the effectiveness of PA interventions in people with RA, SpA, HOA and KOA as basis for the EULAR PA recommendations.

    This SR included only studies that met the dose for effective PA according to the public health recommendations for PA as provided by the ACSM for at least one dimension of exercise.

    Methods

    Design

    This study was conducted following the Cochrane Guidelines20 as requested by the EULAR SOP19 and the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) analysis grid. The study was registered in PROSPERO (CRD42017082131; https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/ PROSPERO/).

    Selection criteria

    Included were randomised controlled trials (RCTs) on patients with RA, SpA and HOA or KOA, where the intervention of interest met the dose of the public health recommendations for effective PA as provided by ACSM for at least one dimension of exercise compared with any intervention not meeting the ACSM recommendations, such as low-dosed exercise, home exercises, attention control, usual care and waiting list. Further, for the inclusion in the SR, studies needed to investigate

    • the effect of cardiovascular exercises on cardiovascular fitness,

      or

    • the effect of muscle strength exercise on lower limb muscle strength,

      or

    • the effect of flexibility exercises on flexibility,

      or

    • the effect or neuromotor exercise on neuromotor performance,

      or

    • the effect of a physical activity promotion strategy on the amount of daily PA in people with RA, SpA, HOA or KOA.

    The MA involved those studies with the most frequently used proxy for cardiovascular fitness (eg, VO2max, watts both assessed on a treadmill/bicycle ergometer), muscle strength (of the lower limb like M.quadriceps femoris), flexibility (eg, passive/active range of motion (ROM), Bath Ankylosing Spondylitis Metrology Index) and PA (eg, questionnaire, accelerometer). The time point of interest was the first assessment after the intervention period.

    Search strategy

    Given the presumably high number of available literature, we chose a pragmatic approach: We first searched for key MA or SR including RCTs and, second, updated the yield with recently published RCTs that investigated the effectiveness of PA interventions in adults with RA/SpA/HOA/KOA according to the inclusion criteria described before. The SR was performed in PubMed/Medline, Cochrane Library, Embase, Web of Science, Emcare and PsycInfo, using both MeSH terms and freetext, covering the time frame until April 2017.

    No language restrictions were applied. No additional search for grey literature or ongoing studies or unpublished data was conducted. Reference lists of included studies were scanned, and experts in the field of RA (EH), SpA (HD), HOA/KOA (CBJ) and behaviour change (KK) were consulted identifying relevant missing studies. The search strategy for PubMed/Medline is provided in online supplementary file 1. A-KRO and KN screened first the abstracts of all identified records and second assessed full-text papers fulfilling the inclusion criteria.

    Supplemental material

    Risk of bias assessment

    The risk of bias assessment included the methodological domains: random sequence generation (selection bias), allocation concealment (selection bias), blinding of participants (performance bias), blinding of outcome assessment (detection bias), incomplete data (attrition bias), selective bias (reporting bias) and other potential bias. These criteria were judged as ‘high risk’, ‘low risk’ or ‘unclear risk’ as described by the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions.20 Due to the vast number of studies included, we used a pragmatic approach. If a previous SR or MA had coded included studies for risk of bias, then these ratings were used here, after being spot-checked by the first author (A-KRO). When no previous review or meta-analyses had assessed risk of bias with the Cochrane risk of bias assessment tool, risk of bias rating was performed by two independent assessors (A-KRO, CH). If agreement was not achieved, a third review author (KN) made a final decision. Publication bias was investigated as small study bias and assessed by visual inspection of the funnel plot asymmetry.

    Data extraction and management

    The data extraction was performed by one reviewer (A-KRO) and verified by double reading (CBJ). In studies with more than one intervention group, the intervention groups were pooled if there were only small differences in the intervention (eg, walking or swimming as aerobic exercise intervention). Some authors were contacted to obtain unreported data.

    Synthesis of data

    Applying the PRISMA procedure, this MA focused on the quantitative analysis. The effects of PA on cardiovascular fitness, muscle strength and flexibility were calculated as the standardised mean difference (SMD), allowing for pooling the results of the various outcomes assessed in individual trials. The SMD was estimated as the difference between the postintervention scores in the intervention and control groups divided by the pooled SD. The SD was extracted or estimated from the SE, the 95% CI, the p value, IQR or other methods recommended by the Cochrane Collaboration.20 The SMD was clinically interpreted as originally proposed by Cohen.21 An SMD of 0.2 was considered small, an SMD of 0.5 was considered moderate (and would be recognised as clinically important) and an SMD equal to 0.8 was considered large.20 This estimate of the effect size is slightly biased, overestimating the effect size of small studies, and a correction factor was applied to convert the effect size to Hedges’s g. Meta-analyses using a random-effects model were applied. Heterogeneity was tested using the Q-test and was further quantified as the I2 statistic22 measuring the proportion of variation (ie, inconsistency) in the combined estimates due to between-study variance.23 An I2 value of <40% means low inconsistency between the results of individual trials, and an I2 value of 100% means maximal inconsistency. All statistical analyses were performed in Stata V.15 (StataCorp, College Station, Texas, USA).

    Results

    Study selection and study characteristics

    The literature search revealed 3460 records; 237 of these were screened in full text (figure 1). A total of 174 studies were excluded due to unclear or insufficient dose (n=117), inappropriate study design (n=11), therapeutic exercise intervention (n=9), no between-group difference reported (n=12), joint replacement during intervention (n=5) and no appropriate outcome (n=20). The SR comprised 63 RCTs11 24–87 (two RCTs were reported by two papers each33 49 78 82) published between 1985 and 2017, of which 49 RCTs were included in the MA. The sample size of these studies ranged from 16 to 222 participants; overall, a total of 3909 participants (mean age (SD) 56.2 (9.6) years) were included in the MA (1049 people with RA, 508 people with SpA, 1855 people with KOA and 497 people with HOA). The interventions lasted between 4 and 104 weeks, and all studies assessed before and after the intervention. However, further assessment time points were heterogeneous; six studies (13%) performed one or several follow-ups, up to 29 months.37 52 54 66 81 83 No detrimental effects of PA were reported in any study. Study characteristics of all studies included in the SR are provided in online supplementary table 1; interventions with assessments and outcomes are described in online supplementary tables 2–5.

    Supplemental material

    Supplemental material

    Figure 1
    Figure 1

    Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis flow chart describing the detailed selection process.

    Risk of bias within studies

    Online supplementary figures 6–10, describe the Cochrane risk of bias assessment. Ratings of 32 studies were adopted from existing SRs/MAs and spot-checked by the first author.12 18 88–90 The remaining articles were coded for risk of bias. Two RCTs were rated as low risk of bias for all items.30 37 Randomisation was performed according Cochrane criteria20 in 44 (67%) RCTs. The allocation concealment was ensured in 31 (47%) RCTs. The blinding of participants was assured in 8 RCTs (12%), the blinding of the outcomes assessment in 30 (46%) RCTs. The risk of incomplete data was low in 49 (75%) RCTs. In 32 (48%) RCTs, a study protocol was available, with corresponding published data, resulting in a low risk for selective reporting.

    Effects on cardiovascular fitness

    Sixteen RCTs investigated the effect of aerobic exercise on cardiovascular fitness (online supplementary table 2), including 1326 participants with a mean (SD) age of 51.4 (7.2) years. The MA showed a moderate effect of SMD 0.56 (95% CI 0.38 to 0.75) (figure 2). The overall heterogeneity of study effects was moderate (I2=42.2%); the funnel plot (online supplementary figure 11) showed an asymmetry, indicating a risk of small study bias.

    Supplemental material

    Supplemental material

    Figure 2
    Figure 2

    Forest plot showing the results of the meta-analysis on the effect of aerobic exercise on measured on VO2max in people with rheumatoid arthritis, spondyloarthritis and hip/knee osteoarthritis. SMD, standardised mean difference.

    Effects on muscle strength

    Thirty-one RCTs investigated the effect of muscle strength exercises on lower limb muscle strength in people with RA or HOA/KOA (online supplementary table 3), of which 28 provided data on M.quadriceps femoris strength. The measurement (60°/sec, 90°/sec) and units (Nm, kp, kg, N, S/kg) varied between the studies; therefore, analyses were performed on SMD. Three RCTs were not included as they reported data in median and range.43 75 91 Although these data could be recalculated into mean and SD, this may lead to imprecise data given the small sample sizes in these studies. If strength was described for both legs, values for the affected leg/joint were included in the analysis. If strength was measured in different positions, the velocity of 60°/sec was preferred for the MA. Twenty-five RCTs, including 936 participants with a mean (SD) age of 61.5 (5.0) years, were included in the MA, which showed a moderate effect of muscle strength exercise on M.quadriceps femoris strength with an SMD 0.54 (95% CI 0.35 to 0.72; figure 3) with substantial heterogeneity (I2=67%). The funnel plot shows minor asymmetry for both RA and HOA/KOA (online supplementary figure 12), thus the analyses might slightly overestimate the effect for both RA and HOA/KOA.

    Supplemental material

    Figure 3
    Figure 3

    Forest plot showing the results of the meta-analysis on the effect of strength exercise on M.quadriceps femoris in people with rheumatoid arthritis and hip/knee osteoarthritis. SMD, standardised mean difference.

    Effects on flexibility

    Eight RCTs investigated the effect of flexibility exercises (ROM, stretching) combined with strength or aerobic exercises compared with no exercise or usual care, and measured the effect on ROM (passive or active) or the Bath Ankylosing Spondylitis Mobility Index. One RCT was not included in the MA as data was presented as median and range.71 None of the RCTs compared flexibility exercises alone with no exercises (online supplementary table 4). The MA of the seven RCTs, including 477 participants with a mean (SD) age of 49.3 (15.2) years, showed no effect of the exercises combination on flexibility either for RA or HOA/KOA showing an overall SMD 0.12 (95% CI -0.16 to 0.41) (figure 4). The overall heterogeneity of study effects was moderate (I2=31.1%). Publication bias was not evaluated due to the sparse number of included studies, especially when stratifying on patient group (HOA/KOA and SpA) in the MA.20

    Figure 4
    Figure 4

    Forest plot showing the results of the meta-analysis on the effect of flexibility exercises combined with strength or aerobic exercises on flexibility in people with ankylosing spondylitis and hip/knee osteoarthritis. Flexibility was measured as active or passive range of motion, and using the Bath Ankylosing Spondylitis Mobility Index. SMD, standardised mean difference.

    Effects on neuromotor performance

    Studies evaluating neuromotor performance were scarce. Da Silva and colleagues36 showed that a 16-week neuromotor exercise programme had a statistically positive effect in neuromotor performance in 91 people with RA, evaluated with Berg Balance Scale, Tinettis Test and Timed-Up-and-Go Test. Four RCTs in people with KOA who performed strength exercises, evaluated neuromotor performance with the step test for standing balance, reposition error of the knee, Berg Balance Scale and one leg standing time with eyes open. Two RCTs showed a positive effect63 92; two found no effect.74 93 Røgind and colleagues71 investigated the effect of a programme combining strength, stretching, mobility and balance exercises on postural sway, but found no effects.

    Effects on daily PA

    Eleven RCTs investigated the effect of a daily PA promotion intervention on daily PA (online supplementary table 5) evaluated by accelerometer or questionnaire. In six RCTs, counselling based on BCTs was an essential component of the intervention.30 31 34 58 61 69 Three RCTs did not include a counselling strategy as part of the intervention46 56 70 and two studies described data with percentages33 49 78 82 and were therefore excluded from the analysis. The MA of the six studies, including 694 participants with a mean (SD) age of 59.5 (9.5) years, showed a small effect SMD 0.21 (95% CI 0.03 to 0.38) (figure 5) with no heterogeneity (0%) and no small study bias (online supplementary figure 13).

    Supplemental material

    Figure 5
    Figure 5

    Forest plot showing the results of the meta-analysis on the effect of physical activity promotion strategies including counselling. SMD, standardised mean difference.

    Discussion

    The four MAs overall included 49 studies with 1049 people with RA, 508 people with SpA, 497 people with HOA and 1855 people with KOA. Moderate short-term effects of aerobic and muscle strength exercises on cardiovascular fitness and muscle strength in people with RA, SpA and HOA/KOA were shown. No studies on flexibility exercises alone were found, whereas flexibility exercises combined with muscle strength or aerobic exercise had no effect on flexibility. PA had no detrimental side effects like increased disease activity in any exercise dimension. PA promotion with counselling based on BCTs showed a small beneficial effect on daily PA, which has been shown to be a strong mediator for further health benefits.8 9 However, this MA did not evaluate the effects of increased daily PA on health benefits. Overall, this MA confirms the increasing evidence for the multiple benefits of exercise in people with RA, SpA and HOA/KOA, and indicates that PA promotion interventions can increase daily PA within these individuals.

    In this MA, we reported the effectiveness estimates for each PA dimension over the three conditions based on the effectiveness data available in the primary studies. Exercise interventions are effective if they achieve a physiological response, such as increased flexibility, muscular strength and cardiovascular fitness, which is determined by the right intervention in its right dose, as well as patient adherence.94 Only seven RCTs, included in the MA (13%), reported (minor) adverse events related to exercise like transient increased pain.30 38 65 77 81 85 92 Our findings regarding the safety of exercise and PA promotion interventions are in line with the literature.3 Even a small to moderate beneficial effect of exercise on joint damage, inflammation and symptoms (pain, stiffness, joint tenderness) was found.89 Bischoff and Roos95 showed that aerobic and strength exercise was equally effective regarding pain and function in people with HOA/KOA. Indeed, the effectiveness of interventions cannot be appraised without taking account to feasibility. The feasibility of interventions can be evaluated by adherence to the intervention or the study protocol (reported as attendance rate). However, (self-)reported adherence to intervention might be overestimated due to recall bias or social desirability.96 For aerobic exercise interventions, 75% of the MA-included studies reported an attendance rate varying between 48% and 100%; for muscle strength exercises, 60% of the MA-included studies reported an attendance rate between 49% and 96%. Attendance rate tends to decline over time,38 42 and the compliance between those with supervised and home exercises seems to vary.47 60 This information underlines that a low compliance rate is one of the most compelling challenges for exercise and PA interventions. Long-term adherence implies a change in lifestyle, which can be supported by interventions based on BCTs.18 97

    This MA was based on studies that followed the public health recommendation for PA according to ACSM3 and thus achieved the minimal dose for effective PA interventions. The ACSM98 provide clear recommendations regarding frequency and type of exercise in people with arthritis. Cardiovascular training was performed with no-impact sports like (Nordic) walking,68 dance,86 cycling76 or water-based48 exercising. The recommended intensity varies from moderate to vigorous,3 but also high-intensity training up to 90% of the predicted maximal heart rate or 80% one-repetition-movement appears to be effective and feasible in people with RA.60 83 99 Flexibility exercises were performed as usual care or combined part of the intervention. Most included studies investigated (semi)supervised exercise interventions. ‘Booster strategies’ like phone calls,33 34 47 82 devices (eg, pedometer,34 46 wearable56 61), home visits,27 38 log book,34 47 86 100 web-based instructions,49 written material48 70 86 and visual instructions (eg, video70) were reported. The interventions were always provided by physiotherapists, except in three studies (Pilates trainer,24 physician,76 physiatrist80). Only if adherence to the FITT-VP components of the intervention (frequency, intensity, time, type, volume and progression of exercise) is given and reported the best possible training effect can be achieved and the individual goal on physical performance level can be reached.101 The initiation and maintenance of PA are both challenging and meet different general and disease-specific barriers and facilitators.102–105 This highlights the need for further development in promising strategies, such as BCTs for the promotion of a long-term active lifestyle in people with RA, SpA and HOA/KOA. However, starting and maintaining regular exercise in all four dimensions is difficult, even for healthy people. Therefore, it is important to pinpoint that the public health recommendations for PA3 state that exercise below the recommended levels may still be beneficial for people not able or not willing to fulfil the recommended amount of PA.

    Strengths and limitations

    To our knowledge, this is the first MA gathering the current evidence on the effectiveness of exercising according to the ACSM principles3 with regard to the dimensions and dose for exercise in the three rheumatic conditions RA, SpA and HOA/KOA. The aim of this MA was to evaluate the overall effect of exercise and PA promotion, and we do not have evidence to suspect heterogeneity in treatment response among these conditions. However, a disease-specific analysis could be beneficial.

    The vast variability of used assessments and scales led us to indirect comparisons. Our analysis illustrates that a consensus on assessments in the field of PA could help to launch more research with comparative outcomes and findings. Gates and colleagues106 described a consensus how to facilitate the comparison of data between heterogeneous studies in research on PA in HOA/KOA. One of the important points was to decide on MET minutes per week as a key method to assess daily PA and defined minimal requirements for future studies. Being aware of the indirect comparisons, the analyses were a good basis for the task force to decide on PA recommendations for people with RA, SpA and HOA/KOA. More studies with a larger number of participants and similar assessments are needed to clearly decide on the long-term effects of exercise, as the overall aim of PA promotion is a change in long-term life style. Long-term supervised exercises seem to be more effective than short-term exercises88 107; however, the intervention duration and setting was not part of this analysis.

    It is a limitation that only one reviewer screened the abstracts and decided on unclear abstracts together with a second reviewer, which is not fully in line with standard procedures of a SR.108 However, we applied a double check by experts to ensure that no relevant studies were missed.

    Conclusion/clinical implication

    Physical activity according to public health recommendations following the ACSM principles3 show moderate effectiveness on cardiorespiratory and muscle strength as well as PA promotion interventions based on counselling in people with with RA, SpA and HOA/KOA. No evidence was found for the effects of flexibility exercises and almost no literature was available evaluating neuromotor exercises. Many studies had to be excluded due to poor reporting on the intervention. Future studies should use the TIDieR-checklist109 (Template for Intervention Description and Replication) or CERT110 (Consensus on Exercise Reporting Template) to improve completeness of reporting. This will enable clinicians to implement effective interventions and researchers to replicate or merge findings.

    Supplemental material

    Supplemental material

    Supplemental material

    Supplemental material

    Supplemental material

    Supplemental material

    Acknowledgments

    We thank Mrs José Plevier, Walaeus Library, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands, for supporting our literature search, and Christian Horvath (CH), MSc student at ZHAW for his help in the Cochrane risk of bias assessment. Many thanks to all Task Force Members of the EULAR endorsed project ‘2018 EULAR recommendations for physical activity in people with inflammatory arthritis and osteoarthritis’, who all participated actively in the development of the recommendations and supported the idea of a MA.

    References

    1. 1.↵
      2. Caspersen CJ ,
      3. Powell KE ,
      4. Christenson GM
      . Physical activity, exercise, and physical fitness: definitions and distinctions for health-related research. Public Health Rep 1985;100:126–31.
      OpenUrlPubMed
    2. 2.↵
      2. Keogh JWL ,
      3. Grigg J ,
      4. Vertullo CJ
      . Is Home-based, high-intensity interval training cycling feasible and safe for patients with knee osteoarthritis?: study protocol for a randomized pilot study. Orthop J Sports Med 2017;5:2325967117694334.doi:10.1177/2325967117694334
    3. 3.↵
      2. Garber CE ,
      3. Blissmer B ,
      4. Deschenes MR , et al
      . American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Quantity and quality of exercise for developing and maintaining cardiorespiratory, musculoskeletal, and neuromotor fitness in apparently healthy adults: guidance for prescribing exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2011;43:1334–59.doi:10.1249/MSS.0b013e318213fefb
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
    4. 4.↵
      1. Organization WH
      . Global recommendations on physical activity for health. Geneve: Organization WH, 2010.
    5. 5.↵
      2. Jetté M ,
      3. Sidney K ,
      4. Blümchen G
      . Metabolic equivalents (METS) in exercise testing, exercise prescription, and evaluation of functional capacity. Clin Cardiol 1990;13:555–65.doi:10.1002/clc.4960130809
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
    6. 6.↵
      2. Swain DP ,
      3. Franklin BA
      . Comparison of cardioprotective benefits of vigorous versus moderate intensity aerobic exercise. Am J Cardiol 2006;97:141–7.doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2005.07.130
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
    7. 7.↵
      2. Lee IM ,
      3. Paffenbarger RS
      . Associations of light, moderate, and vigorous intensity physical activity with longevity. The Harvard Alumni Health Study. Am J Epidemiol 2000;151:293–9.doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a010205
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
    8. 8.↵
      2. Lee IM ,
      3. Shiroma EJ ,
      4. Lobelo F , et al
      . Effect of physical inactivity on major non-communicable diseases worldwide: an analysis of burden of disease and life expectancy. Lancet 2012;380:219–29.doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61031-9
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
    9. 9.↵
      2. Warburton DE ,
      3. Bredin SS
      . Reflections on physical activity and health: what should we recommend? Can J Cardiol 2016;32:495–504.doi:10.1016/j.cjca.2016.01.024
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    10. 10.↵
      2. Cooney JK ,
      3. Law RJ ,
      4. Matschke V , et al
      . Benefits of exercise in rheumatoid arthritis. J Aging Res 2011;2011:1–14.doi:10.4061/2011/681640
      OpenUrl
    11. 11.↵
      2. Sveaas SH ,
      3. Berg IJ ,
      4. Provan SA , et al
      . Efficacy of high intensity exercise on disease activity and cardiovascular risk in active axial spondyloarthritis: a randomized controlled pilot study. PLoS One 2014;9 doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0108688
    12. 12.↵
      2. Bartholdy C ,
      3. Juhl C ,
      4. Christensen R , et al
      . The role of muscle strengthening in exercise therapy for knee osteoarthritis: a systematic review and meta-regression analysis of randomized trials. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2017;47:9–21.doi:10.1016/j.semarthrit.2017.03.007
      OpenUrl
    13. 13.↵
      2. Fernandes L ,
      3. Hagen KB ,
      4. Bijlsma JW , et al
      . EULAR recommendations for the non-pharmacological core management of hip and knee osteoarthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2013;72:1125–35.doi:10.1136/annrheumdis-2012-202745
      OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    14. 14.↵
      2. Combe B ,
      3. Landewe R ,
      4. Daien CI , et al
      . 2016 update of the EULAR recommendations for the management of early arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2017;76:948–59.doi:10.1136/annrheumdis-2016-210602
      OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    15. 15.↵
      2. van der Heijde D ,
      3. Ramiro S ,
      4. Landewé R , et al
      . 2016 update of the ASAS-EULAR management recommendations for axial spondyloarthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2017;76:978–91.doi:10.1136/annrheumdis-2016-210770
      OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    16. 16.↵
      2. Rausch Osthoff AK ,
      3. Vliet Vlieland TP ,
      4. Braun J , et al
      . EULAR recommendations for physical activity in people with inflammatory arthritis and osteoarthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2018;2018. accepted (16th June 2018).
    17. 17.↵
      2. Larkin L ,
      3. Kennedy N ,
      4. Gallagher S
      . Promoting physical activity in rheumatoid arthritis: a narrative review of behaviour change theories. Disabil Rehabil 2015;37:2359–66.doi:10.3109/09638288.2015.1019011
      OpenUrlCrossRef
    18. 18.↵
      2. Demmelmaier I ,
      3. Iversen MD
      . How are behavioral theories used in interventions to promote physical activity in rheumatoid arthritis? a systematic review. Arthritis Care Res 2018;70:185–96.doi:10.1002/acr.23265
      OpenUrl
    19. 19.↵
      2. van der Heijde D ,
      3. Aletaha D ,
      4. Carmona L , et al
      . 2014 Update of the EULAR standardised operating procedures for EULAR-endorsed recommendations. Ann Rheum Dis 2015;74:8–13.doi:10.1136/annrheumdis-2014-206350
      OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    20. 20.↵
      2. Higgins J ,
      3. Green S
      . Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions. Version 5.1.0, 2011.
    21. 21.↵
      2. Cohen J
      . Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. 2nd edn. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1988.
    22. 22.↵
      2. Higgins JP ,
      3. Thompson SG
      . Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta-analysis. Stat Med 2002;21:1539–58.doi:10.1002/sim.1186
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
    23. 23.↵
      2. Higgins JP ,
      3. Thompson SG ,
      4. Deeks JJ , et al
      . Measuring inconsistency in meta-analyses. BMJ 2003;327:557–60.doi:10.1136/bmj.327.7414.557
      OpenUrlFREE Full Text
    24. 24.↵
      2. Altan L ,
      3. Korkmaz N ,
      4. Dizdar M , et al
      . Effect of Pilates training on people with ankylosing spondylitis. Rheumatol Int 2012;32:2093–9.doi:10.1007/s00296-011-1932-9
      OpenUrlPubMed
    25. 25.↵
      2. Anwer S ,
      3. Alghadir A
      . Effect of isometric quadriceps exercise on muscle strength, pain, and function in patients with knee osteoarthritis: a randomized controlled study. J Phys Ther Sci 2014;26:745–8.doi:10.1589/jpts.26.745
      OpenUrl
    26. 26.↵
      2. Baillet A ,
      3. Payraud E ,
      4. Niderprim VA , et al
      . A dynamic exercise programme to improve patients' disability in rheumatoid arthritis: a prospective randomized controlled trial. Rheumatology 2009;48:410–5.doi:10.1093/rheumatology/ken511
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
    27. 27.↵
      2. Baker KR ,
      3. Nelson ME ,
      4. Felson DT , et al
      . The efficacy of home based progressive strength training in older adults with knee osteoarthritis: a randomized controlled trial. J Rheumatol 2001;28:1655–65.
      OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    28. 28.↵
      2. Baslund B ,
      3. Lyngberg K ,
      4. Andersen V , et al
      . Effect of 8 wk of bicycle training on the immune system of patients with rheumatoid arthritis. J Appl Physiol 1993;75:1691–5.doi:10.1152/jappl.1993.75.4.1691
      OpenUrlPubMedWeb of Science
    29. 29.↵
      2. Bennell KL ,
      3. Egerton T ,
      4. Pua YH , et al
      . Efficacy of a multimodal physiotherapy treatment program for hip osteoarthritis: a randomised placebo-controlled trial protocol. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 2010;11:238.doi:10.1186/1471-2474-11-238
    30. 30.↵
      2. Bennell KL ,
      3. Campbell PK ,
      4. Egerton T , et al
      . Telephone coaching to enhance a home-based physical activity program for knee osteoarthritis: a randomized clinical trial. Arthritis Care Res 2017;69:84–94.doi:10.1002/acr.22915
      OpenUrl
    31. 31.↵
      2. Bieler T ,
      3. Siersma V ,
      4. Magnusson SP
      . OP0006-HPR even in the long run Nordic walking is superior to strength training and home based exercise for improving physical function in older people with hip osteoarthritis—an RCT. Ann Rheum Dis 2016;75(Suppl 2):55 doi:10.1136/annrheumdis-2016-eular.4096
      OpenUrl
    32. 32.↵
      2. Börjesson M ,
      3. Robertson E ,
      4. Weidenhielm L , et al
      . Physiotherapy in knee osteoarthrosis: effect on pain and walking. Physiother Res Int 1996;1:89–97.doi:10.1002/pri.6120010205
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    33. 33.↵
      2. Brodin N ,
      3. Eurenius E ,
      4. Jensen I , et al
      . Coaching patients with early rheumatoid arthritis to healthy physical activity: a multicenter, randomized, controlled study. Arthritis Rheum 2008;59:325–31.doi:10.1002/art.23327
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
    34. 34.↵
      2. Brosseau L ,
      3. Wells GA ,
      4. Kenny GP , et al
      . The implementation of a community-based aerobic walking program for mild to moderate knee osteoarthritis: a knowledge translation randomized controlled trial: part II: clinical outcomes. BMC Public Health 2012;12 doi:10.1186/1471-2458-12-1073
    35. 35.↵
      2. Bruce-Brand RA ,
      3. Walls RJ ,
      4. Ong JC , et al
      . Effects of home-based resistance training and neuromuscular electrical stimulation in knee osteoarthritis: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 2012;13 doi:10.1186/1471-2474-13-118
    36. 36.↵
      2. da Silva KN ,
      3. Teixeira LE ,
      4. Imoto AM , et al
      . Effectiveness of sensorimotor training in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a randomized controlled trial. Rheumatol Int 2013;33:2269–75.doi:10.1007/s00296-013-2706-3
      OpenUrl
    37. 37.↵
      2. de Jong Z ,
      3. Munneke M ,
      4. Kroon HM , et al
      . Long-term follow-up of a high-intensity exercise program in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Clin Rheumatol 2009;28:663–71.doi:10.1007/s10067-009-1125-z
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    38. 38.↵
      2. Ettinger WH ,
      3. Burns R ,
      4. Messier SP , et al
      . A randomized trial comparing aerobic exercise and resistance exercise with a health education program in older adults with knee osteoarthritis. The Fitness Arthritis and Seniors Trial (FAST). JAMA 1997;277:25–31.doi:10.1001/jama.1997.03540250033028
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
    39. 39.↵
      2. Fang H ,
      3. Cai W ,
      4. Pan Y , et al
      . Six-month home-based exercise and supervised training in patients with ankylosing spondylitis. Int J Clin Exp Med 2016;9:6635–41.
      OpenUrl
    40. 40.↵
      2. Flint-Wagner HG ,
      3. Lisse J ,
      4. Lohman TG , et al
      . Assessment of a sixteen-week training program on strength, pain, and function in rheumatoid arthritis patients. J Clin Rheumatol 2009;15:165–71.doi:10.1097/RHU.0b013e318190f95f
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    41. 41.↵
      2. Foroughi N ,
      3. Smith RM ,
      4. Lange AK , et al
      . Lower limb muscle strengthening does not change frontal plane moments in women with knee osteoarthritis: a randomized controlled trial. Clin Biomech 2011;26:167–74.doi:10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2010.08.011
      OpenUrl
    42. 42.↵
      2. Häkkinen A
      . Effectiveness and safety of strength training in rheumatoid arthritis. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2004;16:132–7.doi:10.1097/00002281-200403000-00011
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
    43. 43.↵
      2. Hansen TM ,
      3. Hansen G ,
      4. Langgaard AM , et al
      . Longterm physical training in rheumatoid arthritis. A randomized trial with different training programs and blinded observers. Scand J Rheumatol 1993;22:107–12.doi:10.3109/03009749309099253
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
    44. 44.↵
      2. Harkcom TM ,
      3. Lampman RM ,
      4. Banwell BF , et al
      . Therapeutic value of graded aerobic exercise training in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 1985;28:32–9.doi:10.1002/art.1780280106
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
    45. 45.↵
      2. Hermann A ,
      3. Holsgaard-Larsen A ,
      4. Zerahn B , et al
      . Preoperative progressive explosive-type resistance training is feasible and effective in patients with hip osteoarthritis scheduled for total hip arthroplasty—a randomized controlled trial. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2016;24:91–8.doi:10.1016/j.joca.2015.07.030
      OpenUrl
    46. 46.↵
      2. Hiyama Y ,
      3. Yamada M ,
      4. Kitagawa A , et al
      . A four-week walking exercise programme in patients with knee osteoarthritis improves the ability of dual-task performance: a randomized controlled trial. Clin Rehabil 2012;26:403–12.doi:10.1177/0269215511421028
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    47. 47.↵
      2. Hsieh LF ,
      3. Chen SC ,
      4. Chuang CC , et al
      . Supervised aerobic exercise is more effective than home aerobic exercise in female Chinese patients with rheumatoid arthritis. J Rehabil Med 2009;41:332–7.doi:10.2340/16501977-0330
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    48. 48.↵
      2. Hsieh LF ,
      3. Chuang CC ,
      4. Tseng CS , et al
      . Combined home exercise is more effective than range-of-motion home exercise in patients with ankylosing spondylitis: a randomized controlled trial. Biomed Res Int 2014;2014:1–9.doi:10.1155/2014/398190
      OpenUrl
    49. 49.↵
      2. Hurkmans EJ ,
      3. van den Berg MH ,
      4. Ronday KH , et al
      . Maintenance of physical activity after Internet-based physical activity interventions in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatology 2010;49:167–72.doi:10.1093/rheumatology/kep285
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
    50. 50.↵
      2. Ince G ,
      3. Sarpel T ,
      4. Durgun B , et al
      . Effects of a multimodal exercise program for people with ankylosing spondylitis. Phys Ther 2006;86:924–35.
      OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    51. 51.↵
      2. Jan MH ,
      3. Lin CH ,
      4. Lin YF , et al
      . Effects of weight-bearing versus nonweight-bearing exercise on function, walking speed, and position sense in participants with knee osteoarthritis: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2009;90:897–904.doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2008.11.018
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
    52. 52.↵
      2. Jennings F ,
      3. Oliveira HA ,
      4. de Souza MC , et al
      . Effects of aerobic training in patients with ankylosing spondylitis. J Rheumatol 2015;42:2347–53.doi:10.3899/jrheum.150518
      OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    53. 53.↵
      2. de Jorge M ,
      3. Parra S ,
      4. de la Torre-Aboki J , et al
      . Randomized clinical trials as reflexive-interpretative process in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a qualitative study. Rheumatol Int 2015;35:1423–30.doi:10.1007/s00296-015-3218-0
      OpenUrl
    54. 54.↵
      2. Juhakoski R ,
      3. Tenhonen S ,
      4. Malmivaara A , et al
      . A pragmatic randomized controlled study of the effectiveness and cost consequences of exercise therapy in hip osteoarthritis. Clin Rehabil 2011;25:370–83.doi:10.1177/0269215510388313
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    55. 55.↵
      2. Karapolat H ,
      3. Eyigor S ,
      4. Zoghi M , et al
      . Are swimming or aerobic exercise better than conventional exercise in ankylosing spondylitis patients? A randomized controlled study. Eur J Phys Rehabil Med 2009;45:449–57.
      OpenUrlPubMed
    56. 56.↵
      2. Katz P ,
      3. Margaretten M ,
      4. Gregorich S , et al
      . Physical activity to reduce fatigue in rheumatoid arthritis: a randomized controlled trial. Arthritis Care Res 2018;70:1–10.doi:10.1002/acr.23230
      OpenUrl
    57. 57.↵
      2. Kjeken I ,
      3. Bø I ,
      4. Rønningen A , et al
      . A three-week multidisciplinary in-patient rehabilitation programme had positive long-term effects in patients with ankylosing spondylitis: randomized controlled trial. J Rehabil Med 2013;45:260–7.doi:10.2340/16501977-1078
      OpenUrl
    58. 58.↵
      2. Knittle K ,
      3. De Gucht V ,
      4. Hurkmans E , et al
      . Targeting motivation and self-regulation to increase physical activity among patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a randomised controlled trial. Clin Rheumatol 2015;34:231–8.doi:10.1007/s10067-013-2425-x
      OpenUrl
    59. 59.↵
      2. Komatireddy GR ,
      3. Leitch RW ,
      4. Cella K , et al
      . Efficacy of low load resistive muscle training in patients with rheumatoid arthritis functional class II and III. J Rheumatol 1997;24:1531–9.
      OpenUrlPubMedWeb of Science
    60. 60.↵
      2. Lemmey AB ,
      3. Marcora SM ,
      4. Chester K , et al
      . Effects of high-intensity resistance training in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a randomized controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum 2009;61:1726–34.doi:10.1002/art.24891
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
    61. 61.↵
      2. Li LC ,
      3. Sayre EC ,
      4. Xie H
      . A community-based physical activity counselling program for people with knee osteoarthritis: feasibility and preliminary efficacy of the Track-OA study. JMIR Mhealth Uhealth 2017;5.doi:10.2196/mhealth.7863
    62. 62.↵
      2. Lim JY ,
      3. Tchai E ,
      4. Jang SN
      . Effectiveness of aquatic exercise for obese patients with knee osteoarthritis: a randomized controlled trial. Pm R 2010;2:723–31.doi:10.1016/j.pmrj.2010.04.004
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    63. 63.↵
      2. Lin DH ,
      3. Lin CH ,
      4. Lin YF , et al
      . Efficacy of 2 non-weight-bearing interventions, proprioception training versus strength training, for patients with knee osteoarthritis: a randomized clinical trial. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 2009;39:450–7.doi:10.2519/jospt.2009.2923
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    64. 64.↵
      2. Lyngberg KK ,
      3. Harreby M ,
      4. Bentzen H , et al
      . Elderly rheumatoid arthritis patients on steroid treatment tolerate physical training without an increase in disease activity. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1994;75:1189–95.doi:10.1016/0003-9993(94)90003-5
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
    65. 65.↵
      2. Mikesky AE ,
      3. Mazzuca SA ,
      4. Brandt KD , et al
      . Effects of strength training on the incidence and progression of knee osteoarthritis. Arthritis Rheum 2006;55:690–9.doi:10.1002/art.22245
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
    66. 66.↵
      2. Minor MA ,
      3. Hewett JE ,
      4. Webel RR , et al
      . Efficacy of physical conditioning exercise in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. Arthritis Rheum 1989;32:1396–405.doi:10.1002/anr.1780321108
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
    67. 67.↵
      2. Neuberger GB ,
      3. Aaronson LS ,
      4. Gajewski B , et al
      . Predictors of exercise and effects of exercise on symptoms, function, aerobic fitness, and disease outcomes of rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 2007;57:943–52.doi:10.1002/art.22903
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
    68. 68.↵
      2. Niedermann K ,
      3. Sidelnikov E ,
      4. Muggli C , et al
      . Effect of cardiovascular training on fitness and perceived disease activity in people with ankylosing spondylitis. Arthritis Care Res 2013;65:1844–52.doi:10.1002/acr.22062
      OpenUrl
    69. 69.↵
      2. O'Dwyer T ,
      3. Monaghan A ,
      4. Moran J , et al
      . Behaviour change intervention increases physical activity, spinal mobility and quality of life in adults with ankylosing spondylitis: a randomised trial. J Physiother 2017;63:30–9.doi:10.1016/j.jphys.2016.11.009
      OpenUrl
    70. 70.↵
      2. Rodríguez-Lozano C ,
      3. Juanola X ,
      4. Cruz-Martínez J , et al
      . Outcome of an education and home-based exercise programme for patients with ankylosing spondylitis: a nationwide randomized study. Clin Exp Rheumatol 2013;31:739–48.
      OpenUrl
    71. 71.↵
      2. Røgind H ,
      3. Bibow-Nielsen B ,
      4. Jensen B , et al
      . The effects of a physical training program on patients with osteoarthritis of the knees. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1998;79:1421–7.doi:10.1016/S0003-9993(98)90238-6
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
    72. 72.↵
      2. Salli A ,
      3. Sahin N ,
      4. Baskent A , et al
      . The effect of two exercise programs on various functional outcome measures in patients with osteoarthritis of the knee: a randomized controlled clinical trial. Isokinet Exerc Sci 2010;18:201–9.doi:10.3233/IES-2010-0385
      OpenUrl
    73. 73.↵
      2. Smith SS ,
      3. MaxcKay-Lyons M ,
      4. Nunes-Clement S
      . Therapeutic benefits of aquaerobics for individuals with rheumatoid arthritis. Physiotherapy Canada 1998;50:40–6.
      OpenUrl
    74. 74.↵
      2. Sayers SP ,
      3. Gibson K ,
      4. Cook CR
      . Effect of high-speed power training on muscle performance, function, and pain in older adults with knee osteoarthritis: a pilot investigation. Arthritis Care Res 2012;64:46–53.doi:10.1002/acr.20675
      OpenUrl
    75. 75.↵
      2. Seneca T ,
      3. Hauge EM ,
      4. Maribo T
      . Comparable effect of partly supervised and self-administered exercise programme in early rheumatoid arthritis--a randomised, controlled trial. Dan Med J 2015;62:A5127.
    76. 76.↵
      2. Shapoorabadi YJ ,
      3. Vahdatpour B ,
      4. Salesi M , et al
      . Effects of aerobic exercise on hematologic indices of women with rheumatoid arthritis: a randomized clinical trial. J Res Med Sci 2016;21:9.doi:10.4103/1735-1995.177356
    77. 77.↵
      2. Siqueira US ,
      3. Orsini Valente LG ,
      4. de Mello MT
      . Effectiveness of aquatic exercises in women with rheumatoid arthritis: a randomized, controlled, 16-week intervention—The HydRA t Trial. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2017;96:167–75.doi:10.1097/PHM.0000000000000564
      OpenUrl
    78. 78.↵
      2. Sjöquist ES ,
      3. Brodin N ,
      4. Lampa J , et al
      . Physical activity coaching of patients with rheumatoid arthritis in everyday practice: a long-term follow-up. Musculoskeletal Care 2011;9:75–85.doi:10.1002/msc.199
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    79. 79.↵
      2. Steinhilber B ,
      3. Haupt G ,
      4. Miller R , et al
      . Exercise therapy in patients with hip osteoarthritis: effect on hip muscle strength and safety aspects of exercise—results of a randomized controlled trial. Mod Rheumatol 2017;27:493–502.doi:10.1080/14397595.2016.1213940
      OpenUrl
    80. 80.↵
      2. Strasser B ,
      3. Leeb G ,
      4. Strehblow C , et al
      . The effects of strength and endurance training in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Clin Rheumatol 2011;30:623–32.doi:10.1007/s10067-010-1584-2
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    81. 81.↵
      2. Svege I ,
      3. Fernandes L ,
      4. Nordsletten L , et al
      . Long-term effect of exercise therapy and patient education on impairments and activity limitations in people with hip osteoarthritis: secondary outcome analysis of a randomized clinical trial. Phys Ther 2016;96:818–27.doi:10.2522/ptj.20140520
      OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    82. 82.↵
      2. van den Berg MH ,
      3. Ronday HK ,
      4. Peeters AJ , et al
      . Engagement and satisfaction with an Internet-based physical activity intervention in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatology 2007;46:545–52.doi:10.1093/rheumatology/kel341
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
    83. 83.↵
      2. van den Ende CH ,
      3. Hazes JM ,
      4. le Cessie S , et al
      . Comparison of high and low intensity training in well controlled rheumatoid arthritis. Results of a randomised clinical trial. Ann Rheum Dis 1996;55:798–805.doi:10.1136/ard.55.11.798
      OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    84. 84.↵
      2. Wang TJ ,
      3. Belza B ,
      4. Elaine Thompson F , et al
      . Effects of aquatic exercise on flexibility, strength and aerobic fitness in adults with osteoarthritis of the hip or knee. J Adv Nurs 2007;57:141–52.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2648.2006.04102.x
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
    85. 85.↵
      2. Weng MC ,
      3. Lee CL ,
      4. Chen CH , et al
      . Effects of different stretching techniques on the outcomes of isokinetic exercise in patients with knee osteoarthritis. Kaohsiung J Med Sci 2009;25:306–15.doi:10.1016/S1607-551X(09)70521-2
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    86. 86.↵
      2. Westby MD ,
      3. Wade JP ,
      4. Rangno KK , et al
      . A randomized controlled trial to evaluate the effectiveness of an exercise program in women with rheumatoid arthritis taking low dose prednisone. J Rheumatol 2000;27:1674–80.
      OpenUrlPubMedWeb of Science
    87. 87.↵
      2. Häkkinen A ,
      3. Häkkinen K ,
      4. Hannonen P
      . Effects of strength training on neuromuscular function and disease activity in patients with recent-onset inflammatory arthritis. Scand J Rheumatol 1994;23:237–42.doi:10.3109/03009749409103722
      OpenUrlPubMedWeb of Science
    88. 88.↵
      2. Fransen M ,
      3. McConnell S ,
      4. Harmer AR , et al
      . Exercise for osteoarthritis of the knee: a Cochrane systematic review. Br J Sports Med 2015;49:1554–7.doi:10.1136/bjsports-2015-095424
      OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    89. 89.↵
      2. Sveaas SH ,
      3. Smedslund G ,
      4. Hagen KB , et al
      . Effect of cardiorespiratory and strength exercises on disease activity in patients with inflammatory rheumatic diseases: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Sports Med 2017;51:1065–72.doi:10.1136/bjsports-2016-097149
      OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    90. 90.↵
      2. Cramp F ,
      3. Hewlett S ,
      4. Almeida C , et al
      . Non-pharmacological interventions for fatigue in rheumatoid arthritis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013;44:77.doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008322.pub2
      OpenUrl
    91. 91.↵
      2. Lyngberg KK ,
      3. Ramsing BU ,
      4. Nawrocki A , et al
      . Safe and effective isokinetic knee extension training in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 1994;37:623–8.doi:10.1002/art.1780370504
      OpenUrlPubMedWeb of Science
    92. 92.↵
      2. Bennell KL ,
      3. Hunt MA ,
      4. Wrigley TV , et al
      . Hip strengthening reduces symptoms but not knee load in people with medial knee osteoarthritis and varus malalignment: a randomised controlled trial. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2010;18:621–8.doi:10.1016/j.joca.2010.01.010
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
    93. 93.↵
      2. Kim H ,
      3. Suzuki T ,
      4. Saito K , et al
      . Effectiveness of exercise with or without thermal therapy for community-dwelling elderly Japanese women with non-specific knee pain: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 2013;57:352–9.doi:10.1016/j.archger.2013.06.008
      OpenUrl
    94. 94.↵
      2. Schiffer T ,
      3. Knicker A ,
      4. Hoffman U , et al
      . Physiological responses to Nordic walking, walking and jogging. Eur J Appl Physiol 2006;98:56–61.doi:10.1007/s00421-006-0242-5
      OpenUrlPubMed
    95. 95.↵
      2. Bischoff HA ,
      3. Roos EM
      . Effectiveness and safety of strengthening, aerobic, and coordination exercises for patients with osteoarthritis. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2003;15:141–4.doi:10.1097/00002281-200303000-00010
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
    96. 96.↵
      2. Coughlin SS
      . Recall bias in epidemiologic studies. J Clin Epidemiol 1990;43:87–91.doi:10.1016/0895-4356(90)90060-3
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
    97. 97.↵
      2. Larkin L ,
      3. Gallagher S ,
      4. Cramp F , et al
      . Behaviour change interventions to promote physical activity in rheumatoid arthritis: a systematic review. Rheumatol Int 2015;35:1631–40.doi:10.1007/s00296-015-3292-3
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    98. 98.↵
      1. American College of Sports M
      . Guidelines for exercise testing and prescription, 2017.
    99. 99.↵
      2. de Jong Z ,
      3. Munneke M ,
      4. Zwinderman AH , et al
      . Is a long-term high-intensity exercise program effective and safe in patients with rheumatoid arthritis? Results of a randomized controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum 2003;48:2415–24.doi:10.1002/art.11216
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
    100. 100.↵
      2. Jan M-H ,
      3. Lin J-J ,
      4. Liau J-J , et al
      . Investigation of clinical effects of high- and low-resistance training for patients with knee osteoarthritis: a randomized controlled trial. Phys Ther 2008;88:427–36.doi:10.2522/ptj.20060300
      OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    101. 101.↵
      2. Baschung Pfister P ,
      3. de Bruin ED ,
      4. Tobler-Ammann BC , et al
      . The relevance of applying exercise training principles when designing therapeutic interventions for patients with inflammatory myopathies: a systematic review. Rheumatol Int 2015;35:1641–54.doi:10.1007/s00296-015-3343-9
      OpenUrl
    102. 102.↵
      2. Veldhuijzen van Zanten JJ ,
      3. Rouse PC ,
      4. Hale ED , et al
      . Perceived barriers, facilitators and benefits for regular physical activity and exercise in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a review of the literature. Sports Med 2015;45:1401–12.doi:10.1007/s40279-015-0363-2
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    103. 103.↵
      2. O'Dwyer T ,
      3. McGowan E ,
      4. O'Shea F , et al
      . Physical activity and exercise: perspectives of adults with ankylosing spondylitis. J Phys Act Health 2016;13:504–13.doi:10.1123/jpah.2015-0435
      OpenUrl
    104. 104.↵
      2. Dobson F ,
      3. Bennell KL ,
      4. French SD , et al
      . Barriers and facilitators to exercise participation in people with hip and/or knee osteoarthritis: synthesis of the literature using behavior change theory. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2016;95:372–89.doi:10.1097/PHM.0000000000000448
      OpenUrl
    105. 105.↵
      2. Loeppenthin K ,
      3. Esbensen B ,
      4. Ostergaard M , et al
      . Physical activity maintenance in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a qualitative study. Clin Rehabil 2014;28:289–99.doi:10.1177/0269215513501526
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    106. 106.↵
      2. Gates LS ,
      3. Leyland KM ,
      4. Sheard S , et al
      . Physical activity and osteoarthritis: a consensus study to harmonise self-reporting methods of physical activity across international cohorts. Rheumatol Int 2017;37:469–78.doi:10.1007/s00296-017-3672-y
      OpenUrl
    107. 107.↵
      2. Juhl C ,
      3. Christensen R ,
      4. Roos EM , et al
      . Impact of exercise type and dose on pain and disability in knee osteoarthritis: a systematic review and meta-regression analysis of randomized controlled trials. Arthritis Rheumatol 2014;66:622–36.doi:10.1002/art.38290
      OpenUrl
    108. 108.↵
      2. Higgins JP ,
      3. Green S
      . Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions, 2011.
    109. 109.↵
      2. Hoffmann TC ,
      3. Glasziou PP ,
      4. Boutron I , et al
      . Better reporting of interventions: template for intervention description and replication (TIDieR) checklist and guide. BMJ 2014;348:g1687.doi:10.1136/bmj.g1687
    110. 110.↵
      2. Slade SC ,
      3. Dionne CE ,
      4. Underwood M , et al
      . Consensus on Exercise Reporting Template (CERT): Modified Delphi Study. Phys Ther 2016;96:1514–24.doi:10.2522/ptj.20150668
      OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text

    Footnotes

    • TPMVV and KN contributed equally.

    • Contributors A-KRO performed the SLR and data extraction, supervised by KN and TPMVV. JS developed the search strategy for all databases. CBJ double-checked data and performed the meta-analysis. A-KRO and KN drafted the manuscript. All authors of this manuscript were members of the EULAR Task Force, except JS, who developed the recommendations for physical activity in people with inflammatory arthritis and osteoarthritis. They revised this manuscript and approved the final version for publication.

    • Funding The manuscript is part of the EULAR project ‘2018 EULAR recommendations for physical activity in people with inflammatory Arthritis and Osteoarthritis’.

    • Competing interests None declared.

    • Patient consent Not required.

    • Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

    • Data sharing statement There are no unpublished data from this study.